For the first time, this annual climate summit was held in Amazonia, a place at the frontline of climate change. The pivot from the two previous conferences in petrostates Azerbaijan and UAE to a base in the world's largest tropical forest (albeit in one of the world's largest oil-producing countries) was jarring.

As Amazonian researchers, and past and present residents of the city, we saw the potential for COP30 to move discussions further forward than its predecessors in two key ways.

First, and in contrast to many previous gatherings that have sidelined them—or suppressed them altogether—Indigenous and marginalized voices were impossible to ignore at COP30. They have helped shape media narratives and discourse in the blue zone, the venue that hosted events in hundreds of dedicated spaces for national and organizational bodies.

The Belém gathering saw the largest Indigenous participation in Cop history, with around 900 registered representatives. The Cúpula dos Povos, a parallel event hosted at the Universidade Federal do Pará, gave many more Indigenous peoples and local communities a platform to argue against the status quo of relative inaction.

Hosting COP30 in Belém broke down the physical travel barriers for many potential attendees from Indigenous peoples and local communities. The summit organizers went beyond the normal attempts at tokenism in engaging them in discussions.

The region's extensive river networks allowed many Indigenous peoples and local communities from across Amazonia to reach Belém by boat. They held a symbolic "people's flotilla" with over 500 people in 200 vessels, sailing to demand their voices be heard in calling for climate justice and an end to mining and large infrastructure projects affecting their territories.

Meanwhile, the disruptive influence of some Indigenous protesters and their allies in breaching security lines and temporarily obstructing access to the blue zone hopefully focused minds inside, in addition to garnering global headlines.

The second reason to be hopeful about COP30 was that the realities of climate and land use change are jarringly obvious in Amazonia. Belém's oppressive heat and humidity were evident even within the main blue zone arenas. Many delegates were visibly uncomfortable.

This catalyzed an official complaint from UN climate chief Simon Stiell about the climate conditions in the Cop venue, asking for "a clear delivery plan on how temperatures will be brought down within the next 24 hours." The parallels to the goals of the wider negotiation process were hard to miss.

The city's local climate became a protagonist in its own right. A huge thunderstorm during one afternoon flooded many roads and brought down trees across the city, causing power outages.

A recent study has shown that Belém is now experiencing more and more days of high "wet bulb" temperatures (which determine the comfort level of the atmosphere). Such temperatures can lead to deadly heat stress. Continued warming could make many parts of the tropics unlivable.

Although scientific research about consciousness has enjoyed a boom in the past two decades, one central question remains unanswered: What is the function of consciousness? Why did it evolve at all?

The answers to these questions are crucial to understanding why some species (such as our own) became conscious while others (such as oak trees) did not. Furthermore, observing the brains of birds shows that evolution can achieve similar functional solutions to realize consciousness despite different structures.

The working groups led by Professors Albert Newen and Onur Güntürkün at Ruhr University Bochum, Germany, report their findings in a current special issue of the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences from November 13, 2025.

Purposes of pleasure and pain?
Our conscious experience makes up our lives, often through positive pleasure: I feel the warm sun on my skin, I hear the singing of birds, I enjoy the moment. Yet we also often experience pain: I feel my knee hurt from falling on the stairs, I suffer from always being pessimistic. Why have we, as living creatures, even developed a perception that can involve positive experiences as well as pain and even unbearable suffering?

Albert Newen and Carlos Montemayor categorize three types of consciousness, each with different functions: basic arousal, general alertness, and a reflexive (self-)consciousness.

"Evolutionarily, basic arousal developed first, with the base function of putting the body in a state of ALARM in life-threatening situations so that the organism can stay alive," explains Newen. "Pain is an extremely efficient means for perceiving damage to the body and to indicate the associated threat to its continued life. This often triggers a survival response, such as fleeing or freezing."

A second step in evolution is the development of general alertness. This allows us to focus on one item in a simultaneous flow of different information. When we see smoke while someone is speaking to us, we can only focus on the smoke and search for its source.

"This makes it possible to learn about new correlations: first the simple, causal correlation that smoke comes from fire and shows where a fire is located. But targeted alertness also lets us identify complex, scientific correlations," says Carlos Montemayor.

Humans and some animals then develop a reflexive (self-)consciousness. In its complex form, it means that we are able to reflect on ourselves as well as our past and future. We can form an image of ourselves and incorporate it into our actions and plans.

"Reflexive consciousness, in its simple forms, developed parallel to the two basic forms of consciousness," explains Newen. "In such cases, conscious experience focuses not on perceiving the environment, but rather on the conscious registration of aspects of oneself."

This includes the state of one's own body, as well as one's perception, sensations, thoughts, and actions. To use one simple example, recognizing oneself in the mirror is a form of reflexive consciousness.

Children develop this skill at 18 months, and some animals have been shown to do this as well, such as chimpanzees, dolphins, and magpies. Reflexive conscious experiences—as its core function—makes it possible for us to better integrate into society and coordinate with others.

In the early 1930s, Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky observed galaxies in space moving faster than their mass should allow, prompting him to infer the presence of some invisible scaffolding—dark matter—holding the galaxies together. Nearly 100 years later, NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope may have provided direct evidence of dark matter, allowing the invisible matter to be "seen" for the very first time.

The elusive nature of dark matter
Dark matter has remained largely a mystery since it was proposed so many years ago. Up to this point, scientists have only been able to indirectly observe dark matter through its effects on observable matter, such as its ability to generate enough gravitational force to hold galaxies together.

The reason dark matter can't be observed directly is that the particles that make up dark matter don't interact with electromagnetic force—meaning dark matter doesn't absorb, reflect or emit light.

Breakthrough observations from Fermi telescope
Using the latest data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, Professor Tomonori Totani from the Department of Astronomy at the University of Tokyo believes he has finally detected the specific gamma rays predicted by the annihilation of theoretical dark matter particles.

Totani's study is published in the journal Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics.

"We detected gamma rays with a photon energy of 20 gigaelectronvolts (or 20 billion electronvolts, an extremely large amount of energy) extending in a halolike structure toward the center of the Milky Way galaxy. The gamma-ray emission component closely matches the shape expected from the dark matter halo," said Totani.

The observed energy spectrum, or range of gamma-ray emission intensities, matches the emission predicted from the annihilation of hypothetical WIMPs, with a mass approximately 500 times that of a proton. The frequency of WIMP annihilation estimated from the measured gamma-ray intensity also falls within the range of theoretical predictions.

Importantly, these gamma-ray measurements are not easily explained by other, more common astronomical phenomena or gamma-ray emissions. Therefore, Totani considers these data a strong indication of gamma-ray emission from dark matter, which has been sought for many years.

"If this is correct, to the extent of my knowledge, it would mark the first time humanity has 'seen' dark matter. And it turns out that dark matter is a new particle not included in the current standard model of particle physics. This signifies a major development in astronomy and physics," said Totani.

Next steps and scientific verification
While Totani is confident that his gamma-ray measurements are detecting dark matter particles, his results must be verified through independent analysis by other researchers. Even with this confirmation, scientists will want additional proof that the halolike radiation is indeed the result of dark matter annihilation rather than originating from some other astronomical phenomena.

Additional proof of WIMP collisions in other locations that harbor a high concentration of dark matter would bolster these initial results. Detecting the same energy gamma-ray emissions from dwarf galaxies within the Milky Way halo, for example, would support Totani's analysis.

"This may be achieved once more data are accumulated, and if so, it would provide even stronger evidence that the gamma rays originate from dark matter," said Totani.

Cryopreservation, the process of preserving biological tissues by cooling them to subzero temperatures, might sound like something out of science fiction. However, scientists have been developing this technology for nearly a century.

For most of that time, progress was limited—until 2023, when researchers at the University of Minnesota successfully transplanted a cryopreserved kidney into another rat. This achievement demonstrated the potential for using cryopreserved organs in future human transplants.

Preventing cracking in frozen organs
Cryopreserving larger organs poses a significant obstacle because the tissues are prone to cracking during rapid cooling. Avoiding these fractures is critical for maintaining organ integrity in human preservation and transplantation. A research team from the J. Mike Walker ’66 Department of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University, led by Dr. Matthew Powell-Palm, has published a paper detailing a new cryopreservation technique that may prevent cracking in organs.

To preserve organs outside the body for longer periods, scientists use a process called vitrification. This method freezes tissue in a specialized solution, keeping it in a glass-like state that prevents damage from ice crystal formation. By modifying the composition of the vitrification solution, researchers can analyze how different properties influence the likelihood of cracking in an organ.

“In this study, we investigated different glass transition temperatures, which we believe play a dominant role in cracking,” said Powell-Palm, an assistant professor of mechanical engineering. “We learned that higher glass transition temperatures reduce the likelihood of cracking.”

Designing better biocompatible cryosolutions
Equipped with the knowledge that higher transition temperatures are less likely to cause cracks than lower temperatures, researchers can focus on creating aqueous vitrification solutions with higher glass transition temperatures to help avoid cracking.

“Cracking is only one part of the problem,” Powell-Palm said. “The solutions need to be biocompatible with the tissue as well.”

If you've never looked at a dog and wondered if there's "room for a second head on there", congratulations on not being Soviet scientist Vladimir Demikhov, a pioneer of organ transplantation who might be better remembered for his groundbreaking work in heart and lung transplants were it not for the "two-headed dog" experiments.

⭐️ This is Goal 5: Inspire Europe.

Decisions made during #CM25 will advance our Strategy 2040, which focuses on five goals to show how important space is for European citizens.

We aim to inspire future generations by making space accessible for everyone through education, cooperation, and missions that unite and innovate.

Find out more esa.int/About_Us/Minis…

Appearing first as a dot on the horizon, the remote Nini oil field on Europe's rugged North Sea slowly comes into view from a helicopter.

Used to extract fossil fuels, the field is now getting a second lease on life as a means of permanently storing planet-warming carbon dioxide beneath the seabed.

In a process that almost reverses oil extraction, chemical giant INEOS plans to inject liquefied CO2 deep down into depleted oil reservoirs, 1,800 meters (5,900 feet) beneath the seabed.

The Associated Press made a rare visit to the Siri platform, close to the unmanned Nini field, the final stage in INEOS' carbon capture and storage efforts, named Greensand Future.

When the project begins commercial operations next year, Greensand is expected to become the European Union's first fully-operational offshore CO2 storage site.

Environmentalists say carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS, has a role to play in dealing with climate change but should not be used as an excuse by industries to avoid cutting emissions.

For many years, scientists believed that conditions such as schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, or depression developed through a combination of numerous influences, including heredity. A new international study led by the Institute of Human Genetics at the University of Leipzig Medical Center now shows for the first time that a change in a single gene can directly cause a mental disorder. The findings were recently published in the journal Molecular Psychiatry.

The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that in 2021, nearly one in seven people worldwide was living with some form of mental illness, with anxiety disorders and depression appearing most often. These disorders usually stem from a complex mix of causes in which genetics play a major role.

Having a close relative with a mental illness is considered one of the strongest known risk factors. Earlier research generally proposed that mental disorders develop only when many genetic factors interact.

GRIN2A identified as a single-gene driver
“Our current findings indicate that GRIN2A is the first known gene that, on its own, can cause a mental illness. This distinguishes it from the polygenic causes of such disorders that have been assumed to date,” says Professor Johannes Lemke, lead author of the study and Director of the Institute of Human Genetics at the University of Leipzig Medical Center.

Orbiting the Mediterranean, from Europe into Africa. So much human history to see in the lights!

When migration is in the news, it is often cast in negative terms, but it has many benefits for host countries, from economic growth to critical support for systems like Social Security that support aging populations. That's according to a new report produced by two Fletcher School professors and four graduate students for the Club de Madrid, an international group of former heads of states that is concerned with policy issues worldwide.

The publication, "Overcoming Misinformation About Migration and Migrants: A Data-Driven Report on the Positive Impact of Migration on Economy and Social Development," addresses a number of issues in detail, showing, above all, that migration is not a black-and-white issue, and deserves a more nuanced approach.

The report came about thanks to a connection made by Carlos Alvarado-Quesada, professor of the practice of diplomacy at The Fletcher School and former president of Costa Rica. The Club de Madrid wanted a report on the economic and political aspects of migration, and he suggested a collaboration between the organization and the Henry J. Leir Institute for Migration and Human Security at Fletcher.

The Club de Madrid defined the policy areas to be examined, and the Fletcher team—Alvarado-Quesada, Leir Institute Director Katrina Burgess, a professor of political economy at Fletcher, and graduate students Lorenzo Beadle, Joaquín Martínez Albán, Lauren Davis, and Govind Harish—did the research and wrote the report.

"So much of the discourse around migration is about security and the threat posed by migration, and the Club de Madrid was very interested in producing some empirically grounded narratives," says Burgess.

A primary question was whether the data show that migrants are a threat to receiving countries.

"In fact, it turns out it's the opposite in many cases," says Burgess. "But it's complicated. Obviously, there are times when migration creates real challenges, but on balance, it's more of an opportunity than a threat."

In As You Like It, Shakespeare famously wrote about human life being divided into seven ages, from the “mewling” infant to the “second childishness” of the very elderly (he really did have a way with words, did old Bill). That was less science, more symbolism – but now, neuroscientists have revealed how the human brain really does seem to go through five ages, or epochs, over the course of a lifetime. 

Studying brain scans from nearly 4,000 people across the whole spectrum of human life, from newborns to 90-year-olds, a team has identified four “turning points” at which the brain undergoes seismic shifts, which therefore divide its lifespan into five periods.

The turning points happen, according to the data, at age 9, 32, 66, and 83.

“We know the brain’s wiring is crucial to our development, but we lack a big picture of how it changes across our lives and why,” said lead author Dr Alexa Mousley of the University of Cambridge in a statement. “This study is the first to identify major phases of brain wiring across a human lifespan.”

Feeling out-of-this-world thankful for your friends, family, or furry companions this holiday season? Sign up to send their names around the Moon and back!

Submitted names will be included on an SD card that will fly inside the Orion spacecraft when the NASAArtemis II mission launches in 2026: go.nasa.gov/artemisnames

Earlier this year, a group of researchers published a paper on the remarkable phenomenon of sex reversal in several Australian birds, including wild magpies and kookaburras.

They've yet to discover the exact mechanism through which this happens. Nonetheless, their discovery would have fascinated medieval scientists, who were just as engaged in trying to understand sex and gender in the avian world.

Medieval ideas of bird 'sex'
Sexual differences in birds include anatomical and behavioral characteristics that vary within and across species.

Scientists have found biological triggers for sex-specific traits that may shift during an individual's lifetime. For example, female ducks and chickens can take on "masculine" attributes once their egg-laying years are over.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) observed similar changes in birds almost 2,400 years ago. His text History of Animals explained that the physical characteristics of sex in chickens and other animals could change according to action and circumstance.

In medieval Europe, the word "sexus" was used to refer to everything people now label as "sex," "gender" and "sexuality."

Research on sexus occurred in all the places of medieval science: schools, universities, monasteries, households, workshops and natural landscapes. Medieval people developed their own experiments and theories based on their lived experiences.

Those who read Latin or Greek studied and revised the findings of ancient authorities such as Aristotle, Galen and Pliny the Elder.

Cultural exchange also helped advance scientific knowledge. The 11th-century physician-monk Constantine the African was one of many who translated Arabic texts for readers of Latin.

What are the physics of life? That is more than just a philosophical question - it has practical implications for our search for life elsewhere in the galaxy. We know what Earth life looks like, on a number of levels, but finding it on another planet could require us to redefine what we even mean by life itself. A new paper from Stuart Bartlett of Cal Tech and his co-authors provides a new framework for how life could be defined that could reach beyond just what we understand from our one Pale Blue Dot.

According to their framework, life isn’t just chemical or thermodynamic - it’s informational. In particular, it involves processing what they call Semantic Information (SI). By their definition, SI is information that helps and organism survive - such as “don’t eat that red berry”. Syntactic Information, on the other hand, is just raw data and can be dismissed as “noise” by life without any consequence to its viability.

Viability is really one of the keys to understanding the framework. The authors define life as having an intrinsic, relatively simple goal - don’t die. On the other hand, something that has complex chemical and thermodynamic systems, such as a rock or a hurricane, has no such qualms about its demise. Life has to constantly monitoring it surroundings, in terms of its available food, the exterior temperature, and whether there are any toxins around. Those pieces of information are all SI - meaning they have a material impact on the viability of the life form. On the other hand, a rock doesn’t really care what toxins or food are round, nor what the temperature is.

Fraser discusses why space exploration is so important to our evolution as a species.

We have good reason to suspect that Tyrannosaurus rex could swim. It’s hard to imagine, tiny-armed giant that it was, but it’s true.

Most animals can swim in some form or another regardless of whether they’re adapted for moving through water. The big question, really, isn’t could T. rex swim? It’s how did T. rex swim.

Could T. rex swim? The evidence
Sir David Attenborough took on the question of how T. rex might swim in Apple TV’s Prehistoric Planet. The series went in hard with briefly-aquatic T. rex, featuring it doing a kind of doggy paddle on the series posters. So, what evidence is there of this behavior?

We’ve found swim traces thought to be made by the claws of a two-legged dinosaur, like T. rex, scraping along the sediment. Some theropod swim traces were found in the Cameros Basin in La Rioja, Spain.

Hundreds of footprints were found at the site, but some of these were cut through by swim traces, indicating the water level rose and our walking dinosaurs had to get swimming. We’ve found similar marks (thousands of them, in fact) in Utah, so it doesn’t seem like swimming was all that rare.

It’s Lucy!

For decades, her species was thought to have played a key role in our evolution - but a recent discovery raises the possibility that a different species was our ancestor.

Find out what new fossils have revealed
nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/…

Mars is about to join a currently exclusive planetary club. Until today, the only worlds known to have lightning were Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn. It has long been suspected that the Red Planet, with its whirlwinds and global dust storms, could have some lightning phenomena, just like in the deserts of Earth. Now, researchers have finally found evidence supporting that notion.

The evidence is not visual, as we might expect when we picture lightning. Instead, it is audio recordings from the SuperCam microphone aboard the Perseverance rover. And it didn't record thunder either – the recordings are of the electric discharge that happens in the air.