In order to better understand how to repair your home, you must first understand how a home is built. Things will make a lot more sense once you understand what is behind your walls and under your floors. You always work from the bottom-up in construction. The golden rule of construction is 16" on center, I will explain further in the coming posts. This information is to be sourced from the international building code and is the standard for all construction. It is imperative you do not cut or modify ANY part of your structure without first understanding how the load is carried from your roof all the way to the basement and what utilities are not visible and where.
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Foundation:
A foundation transfers the load of a structure to the earth and resists loads imposed by the earth. For the purpose of this post I will go over three of the most common types of foundation, a slab foundation, full basement foundation or a post and pier foundation (refer to image for foundation types not listed here). A slab is a flat 4 inch (minimum) thick monolithic-concrete platform fitting the footprint of the structure. This type of foundation needs no floor joists and has no basement. A full basement foundation is also the same size as the footprint of the house, but instead of a flat slab, the foundation wall extends around 8 feet below ground level and provides a livable space under the house. Basement foundations can be poured concrete (best), fieldstone and mortar, or cinderblock and mortar. A basement foundation will need floor joists and rim board before the walls are built. A post and pier foundation is made up of vertical wood posts anchored to concrete footings down in to the earth; typically spaced out 4ft evenly under the floor framework to support the house. A post and pier foundation will typically have brick or cinderblock curtain wall and will not be habitable space. The purpose of foundations are to give you a solid and stable structure to build off. You may have seen an old barn that is leaning to one side, or totally collapsed; 99% of the time this is due to foundation issues.
A foundation transfers the load of a structure to the earth and resists loads imposed by the earth. For the purpose of this post I will go over three of the most common types of foundation, a slab foundation, full basement foundation or a post and pier foundation (refer to image for foundation types not listed here). A slab is a flat 4 inch (minimum) thick monolithic-concrete platform fitting the footprint of the structure. This type of foundation needs no floor joists and has no basement. A full basement foundation is also the same size as the footprint of the house, but instead of a flat slab, the foundation wall extends around 8 feet below ground level and provides a livable space under the house. Basement foundations can be poured concrete (best), fieldstone and mortar, or cinderblock and mortar. A basement foundation will need floor joists and rim board before the walls are built. A post and pier foundation is made up of vertical wood posts anchored to concrete footings down in to the earth; typically spaced out 4ft evenly under the floor framework to support the house. A post and pier foundation will typically have brick or cinderblock curtain wall and will not be habitable space. The purpose of foundations are to give you a solid and stable structure to build off. You may have seen an old barn that is leaning to one side, or totally collapsed; 99% of the time this is due to foundation issues.
Common issues:
Cracking or sagging are the most common issues with home foundations. If you have a concrete or stone foundation you will more likely see cracking. With post and pier foundations, sagging is most common. When concrete cracks, it is actually most likely due to a small amount of settlement. All homes will settle over time, but this is different from sagging due to the rate at which it happens. Settlement is likely to be less than a 1/2 inch per decade, while sagging can be as much as 1/2 inch per month. Settlement can lead to small wall cracks, window misalignment ect, over time. Sagging will fuck up all your walls, windows, doors and your life in the span of as little as a month. Anyway, concrete cracking can allow draft, water, vermin and bug access and should be repaired with some sort of hydraulic cement or epoxy resin to avoid re-cracking. If you have cracking on a stone/ cinderblock foundation you should chip out all the loose mortar of the affected area(mortar is the substrate between stones and cinder). Do NOT do more than a 4ft x 4ft area at once as this can cause structural failure. Clean the area with a vacuum and muriatic acid, re-point with sanded mortar mix that closely matches the original mixture as best you can tell. Sagging typically happens on a post and pier foundation as those houses are supported by as little as 4-10 posts and if one footing begins to sag far below the other footings, the house will begin to lean in that direction. This is the most dangerous repair and I do not advise anyone attempt this without experience. To fix a sagging/ sinking footing is to first jack-up the house back to level and plumb. You can use a bottle jack if you have a good jacking surface, or you can use heavy equipment. Once the house is back where it should be, you should dig 3 footings for every 2 sinking. If space is an issue, remove the old conrete footing and replace it with a much wider footing that will not sink. Inspect your soil prior to construction of a new home in order to avoid these issues as much as possible
Cracking or sagging are the most common issues with home foundations. If you have a concrete or stone foundation you will more likely see cracking. With post and pier foundations, sagging is most common. When concrete cracks, it is actually most likely due to a small amount of settlement. All homes will settle over time, but this is different from sagging due to the rate at which it happens. Settlement is likely to be less than a 1/2 inch per decade, while sagging can be as much as 1/2 inch per month. Settlement can lead to small wall cracks, window misalignment ect, over time. Sagging will fuck up all your walls, windows, doors and your life in the span of as little as a month. Anyway, concrete cracking can allow draft, water, vermin and bug access and should be repaired with some sort of hydraulic cement or epoxy resin to avoid re-cracking. If you have cracking on a stone/ cinderblock foundation you should chip out all the loose mortar of the affected area(mortar is the substrate between stones and cinder). Do NOT do more than a 4ft x 4ft area at once as this can cause structural failure. Clean the area with a vacuum and muriatic acid, re-point with sanded mortar mix that closely matches the original mixture as best you can tell. Sagging typically happens on a post and pier foundation as those houses are supported by as little as 4-10 posts and if one footing begins to sag far below the other footings, the house will begin to lean in that direction. This is the most dangerous repair and I do not advise anyone attempt this without experience. To fix a sagging/ sinking footing is to first jack-up the house back to level and plumb. You can use a bottle jack if you have a good jacking surface, or you can use heavy equipment. Once the house is back where it should be, you should dig 3 footings for every 2 sinking. If space is an issue, remove the old conrete footing and replace it with a much wider footing that will not sink. Inspect your soil prior to construction of a new home in order to avoid these issues as much as possible
Floor:
Depending on the type of slab you are working with, you will have a different floor structure. Full basements and crawl spaces require floor joists and sills, while a slab foundation floors joists are optional. Floor joists are usually 2x12 lumber that will span across basement/crawl space. In a basement foundation, floor joists will rest on top of the concrete walls, with a rim board around the perimeter to keep the joists spaced evenly. A crawl space will use 4x4 posts every 4-8ft to carry the load down to concrete footings. The joist framing for a crawl space will use a double 2x12 beam along the perimeter instead of a rim board, for extra strength and structure. All joists should be spaced no more than 16 inches on center, leaving you 14.5 inches between. Any joists that span longer than 16 feet should have at least one structural beam with posts perpendicular to the joists, to carry the load to the concrete/floor below. Installed peerpendicular on top of joists will be subflooring. Subflooring can either be plywood in newer homes or rough sawn planks in older homes. Subflooring is what gives you a flat surface to install your finished floor.
Depending on the type of slab you are working with, you will have a different floor structure. Full basements and crawl spaces require floor joists and sills, while a slab foundation floors joists are optional. Floor joists are usually 2x12 lumber that will span across basement/crawl space. In a basement foundation, floor joists will rest on top of the concrete walls, with a rim board around the perimeter to keep the joists spaced evenly. A crawl space will use 4x4 posts every 4-8ft to carry the load down to concrete footings. The joist framing for a crawl space will use a double 2x12 beam along the perimeter instead of a rim board, for extra strength and structure. All joists should be spaced no more than 16 inches on center, leaving you 14.5 inches between. Any joists that span longer than 16 feet should have at least one structural beam with posts perpendicular to the joists, to carry the load to the concrete/floor below. Installed peerpendicular on top of joists will be subflooring. Subflooring can either be plywood in newer homes or rough sawn planks in older homes. Subflooring is what gives you a flat surface to install your finished floor.
Common issues:
Issues with floors are typically related to the foundation beneath, such as sagging issues previously described. Two other common issues with floor structures are bowing or rot. Sagging must be fixed at the foundation prior to work on the floor structure itself. Bowing is typically a noticeable drop in the middle of floors, where part of the floor drops down lower than the rest. Bowing is typically caused by either improper weight transfer or a broken joist and sometimes due to high moisture. You can find broken joists by either visual cracks or knocking on them with a hammer, you will hear a noticeable difference in the sound. Often times people will remove their entire floor surface or ceiling plaster in order to repair a floor structure. If you have this kind of access, drop new joist(s) next to the old from above or below. If you are not able to have such access you can repair or reinforce joists by cutting a slot outside, for the new joist to slide in, next to the broken. If no joists are broken and your floor is bowing, it means the floor is not strong enough for the load it is taking. Sometimes, if you have enough access to your floor frame work, you can install all new joists as described above. Most commonly however, a new beam and posts will need to be installed under the bowing floor after jacking the floor level. It is important that all weight-bearing posts be installed atop a proper strucural surface (footing, beams, foundation). Rot is like cancer and can be the most severe and also the most common of all hoke damage in general. Most of you have seen rot at some point in the woods or around the home. Rot happens when wood is exposed to wet conditions over a certain period of time. First identify the leak and stop it, whether its source is from inside or outside. The finished flooring surface may not show any signs of rot so this often requires a new finished floor. Rot is a cancer, you have to remove/ cut out all wood that is soft with rot. It is VITAL you build temporary walls/support before work on a damgerous floor and before removing or cutting anything that bears weight (aka joists, sills , posts). Once all rot is removed you can sister the cut joists, install new subfloor plywood and install a new finished floor.
Issues with floors are typically related to the foundation beneath, such as sagging issues previously described. Two other common issues with floor structures are bowing or rot. Sagging must be fixed at the foundation prior to work on the floor structure itself. Bowing is typically a noticeable drop in the middle of floors, where part of the floor drops down lower than the rest. Bowing is typically caused by either improper weight transfer or a broken joist and sometimes due to high moisture. You can find broken joists by either visual cracks or knocking on them with a hammer, you will hear a noticeable difference in the sound. Often times people will remove their entire floor surface or ceiling plaster in order to repair a floor structure. If you have this kind of access, drop new joist(s) next to the old from above or below. If you are not able to have such access you can repair or reinforce joists by cutting a slot outside, for the new joist to slide in, next to the broken. If no joists are broken and your floor is bowing, it means the floor is not strong enough for the load it is taking. Sometimes, if you have enough access to your floor frame work, you can install all new joists as described above. Most commonly however, a new beam and posts will need to be installed under the bowing floor after jacking the floor level. It is important that all weight-bearing posts be installed atop a proper strucural surface (footing, beams, foundation). Rot is like cancer and can be the most severe and also the most common of all hoke damage in general. Most of you have seen rot at some point in the woods or around the home. Rot happens when wood is exposed to wet conditions over a certain period of time. First identify the leak and stop it, whether its source is from inside or outside. The finished flooring surface may not show any signs of rot so this often requires a new finished floor. Rot is a cancer, you have to remove/ cut out all wood that is soft with rot. It is VITAL you build temporary walls/support before work on a damgerous floor and before removing or cutting anything that bears weight (aka joists, sills , posts). Once all rot is removed you can sister the cut joists, install new subfloor plywood and install a new finished floor.
Walls:
There are many types of walls, but for the purpose of this post we will discuss the two main categories of walls you will find in any residential home. Building all walls follows a basic pattern of 16 inches on center for every vertical stud. This pattern goes back at least 80 years. In home construction, you have some walls that are load-bearing and some walls that are non-load-bearing, otherwise known as partition walls. Walls that face the outside (exterior walls) will almost always be load-bearing and insulated with various types of insulation. Walls that do not face the ouside are known as interior walls and can be either load bearing or partition walls. The exterior walls will be built flush with the edge of the floor framing on the exterior side. Load-bearing simply means a wall that is taking weight from above and transferring the weight below. Walls that run perpendicular to your joists/rafters are LOAD-BEARING. Walls that run parallel to your joists/rafters are NOT load-bearing unless they are supporting a structural beam (stairwells in particular). CONSIDER ALL WALLS TO BE LOAD-BEARING UNTIL VISUALLY VERIFIED. Most walls typically have doors/windows, or more simply, openings larger than 16" in your wall. Openings in a partition wall can be framed without worry of weak points, since no/little load will be placed on that wall. Openings in load-bearing walls can cause the wall to collapse if not framed properly. Thus in a load bearing wall you will have a structural header with jack and king studs to take the load of the entire opening and trasfer it below. (refer to pictures for further explanation). The interior side of home walls are typically finished with some variation of plaster and sheetrock or plaster and lathing, depending on the age of the home. The exterior side of walls will have an additional layer of lumber (much like subfloor) called sheathing. Sheathing can be either rough sawn lumber or plywood, again, depending on the homes age. Sheathing gives the exterior walls more shear and lateral strenth as well as extra protection from the elements. On top of the sheathing is usually some variation of a water barrier, like tar paper or tyvek, with the finished siding installed to waterproof the home.
There are many types of walls, but for the purpose of this post we will discuss the two main categories of walls you will find in any residential home. Building all walls follows a basic pattern of 16 inches on center for every vertical stud. This pattern goes back at least 80 years. In home construction, you have some walls that are load-bearing and some walls that are non-load-bearing, otherwise known as partition walls. Walls that face the outside (exterior walls) will almost always be load-bearing and insulated with various types of insulation. Walls that do not face the ouside are known as interior walls and can be either load bearing or partition walls. The exterior walls will be built flush with the edge of the floor framing on the exterior side. Load-bearing simply means a wall that is taking weight from above and transferring the weight below. Walls that run perpendicular to your joists/rafters are LOAD-BEARING. Walls that run parallel to your joists/rafters are NOT load-bearing unless they are supporting a structural beam (stairwells in particular). CONSIDER ALL WALLS TO BE LOAD-BEARING UNTIL VISUALLY VERIFIED. Most walls typically have doors/windows, or more simply, openings larger than 16" in your wall. Openings in a partition wall can be framed without worry of weak points, since no/little load will be placed on that wall. Openings in load-bearing walls can cause the wall to collapse if not framed properly. Thus in a load bearing wall you will have a structural header with jack and king studs to take the load of the entire opening and trasfer it below. (refer to pictures for further explanation). The interior side of home walls are typically finished with some variation of plaster and sheetrock or plaster and lathing, depending on the age of the home. The exterior side of walls will have an additional layer of lumber (much like subfloor) called sheathing. Sheathing can be either rough sawn lumber or plywood, again, depending on the homes age. Sheathing gives the exterior walls more shear and lateral strenth as well as extra protection from the elements. On top of the sheathing is usually some variation of a water barrier, like tar paper or tyvek, with the finished siding installed to waterproof the home.
Common issues:
Again, some of the most severe problems in a wall are due to structural failure in load-bearing walls. If this happens you will notice rapid cracking in the plaster and that doors/windows may not open/close properly. Since we start from the bottom-up, you will need to inspect the foundation and floor structure as a first step to diagnosing the wall failure. These types of sudden structural issues typically do not happen without outside factors. Ask yourself, "did we get a big storm recently?”, "did a tree fall on my house?", "did I do any rexent work on my house that modified my structure?". Diagnosis of all strucural failures will require the full context to determine the likely causes and fixes. More than likely, however, cracking in plaster and doors sticking shut, is more likely due to settlement. More specifically the headers, (above doors and windows) we discussed earlier, are the most common areas to address first. Sometimes you need to rebuild a header that wasn't built properly, sometimes you can get away with shaving the door and patching the drywall and sometimes you have to rebuild a lot of your house. It all depends on the circumstances. Another common issue with walls are deteriorating plaster (ceilings and walls). If your plaster is falling out everywhere and peeling, you probably have some variation of old plaster material. Instead of countless hours forever patching your walls, you will want to hang all new 3/8 sheetrock over every affected wall and ceiling. It is a big job but will save you a lot of time and headaches. The last common issue with walls are leaks and drafts. Leaks usually appear as brownish stains on you plaster and the source will always be above the stain (bottom-up). Leaks will usually occur near windows, doors or corners of the home. Large protions of interior drywall and exterior siding may need to be removed in certain circumstances. Start with a small area to inspect and keep chasing the rot until it is gone. You do not want mold in your home, so watch for leaks. Drafts will appear as spooky ghost sensations in your home. Ask yourself, "was that the wind or am I haunted?" It was probably the wind. Drafts occur mostly around doors and windows (see a pattern?), but can sometimes also occur in corners of your home. The best method to detect drafts we currently have today are Forward Looking Ifrared (FLIR) or infrared laser thermometers. These tools allow you to quickly see cold/warm spots in your home depending on the season.
Again, some of the most severe problems in a wall are due to structural failure in load-bearing walls. If this happens you will notice rapid cracking in the plaster and that doors/windows may not open/close properly. Since we start from the bottom-up, you will need to inspect the foundation and floor structure as a first step to diagnosing the wall failure. These types of sudden structural issues typically do not happen without outside factors. Ask yourself, "did we get a big storm recently?”, "did a tree fall on my house?", "did I do any rexent work on my house that modified my structure?". Diagnosis of all strucural failures will require the full context to determine the likely causes and fixes. More than likely, however, cracking in plaster and doors sticking shut, is more likely due to settlement. More specifically the headers, (above doors and windows) we discussed earlier, are the most common areas to address first. Sometimes you need to rebuild a header that wasn't built properly, sometimes you can get away with shaving the door and patching the drywall and sometimes you have to rebuild a lot of your house. It all depends on the circumstances. Another common issue with walls are deteriorating plaster (ceilings and walls). If your plaster is falling out everywhere and peeling, you probably have some variation of old plaster material. Instead of countless hours forever patching your walls, you will want to hang all new 3/8 sheetrock over every affected wall and ceiling. It is a big job but will save you a lot of time and headaches. The last common issue with walls are leaks and drafts. Leaks usually appear as brownish stains on you plaster and the source will always be above the stain (bottom-up). Leaks will usually occur near windows, doors or corners of the home. Large protions of interior drywall and exterior siding may need to be removed in certain circumstances. Start with a small area to inspect and keep chasing the rot until it is gone. You do not want mold in your home, so watch for leaks. Drafts will appear as spooky ghost sensations in your home. Ask yourself, "was that the wind or am I haunted?" It was probably the wind. Drafts occur mostly around doors and windows (see a pattern?), but can sometimes also occur in corners of your home. The best method to detect drafts we currently have today are Forward Looking Ifrared (FLIR) or infrared laser thermometers. These tools allow you to quickly see cold/warm spots in your home depending on the season.
Roofing:
Your roof is likely the most complicated and important part of your home. Roofing is what keeps your home dry all year round. There are many different types of roof structures but for the purpose of this post we will focus on the basic theory and structure behind most residential roofs. Before we can have a discussion about what parts make up a roof, you will need to know a few terms. These terms describe the typical architectural aspects of a pitched residential roof. Becoming familiar with these terms will enable you to understand how roofs are constructed. The first term is the roof pitch. Pitch is usually assigned an integer that describes common rise over run (angle) of a roof plane. If you recall from geometry class, a plane is a flat surface. In roofing terms, the roof plane is the pitched face of the roof. To describe the areas where roof planes meet, we use the terms ridge, hip and valley. The ridge of the roof is the highest point on the roof where two pitched planes meet. A hip is a place where to planes meet and prject away from you. A hip is similar to a peak, but is usually not at the top of your roof and is usually not horizontal. A valley, just like in geography, is the area where two planes meet and project towards you. A dormer is a common feature on many two-story houses. It is a parallel projection from the main plane of the roof that usually houses a window. The dormer is usually constructed to add space or natural light to an attic or top floor. The gable is not exactly part of the roof, but still an important term to recognize. It is the triangular part of the exterior wall that connects and supports the area between the pitched roof planes. The gable will also support the ridge beam.
Your roof is likely the most complicated and important part of your home. Roofing is what keeps your home dry all year round. There are many different types of roof structures but for the purpose of this post we will focus on the basic theory and structure behind most residential roofs. Before we can have a discussion about what parts make up a roof, you will need to know a few terms. These terms describe the typical architectural aspects of a pitched residential roof. Becoming familiar with these terms will enable you to understand how roofs are constructed. The first term is the roof pitch. Pitch is usually assigned an integer that describes common rise over run (angle) of a roof plane. If you recall from geometry class, a plane is a flat surface. In roofing terms, the roof plane is the pitched face of the roof. To describe the areas where roof planes meet, we use the terms ridge, hip and valley. The ridge of the roof is the highest point on the roof where two pitched planes meet. A hip is a place where to planes meet and prject away from you. A hip is similar to a peak, but is usually not at the top of your roof and is usually not horizontal. A valley, just like in geography, is the area where two planes meet and project towards you. A dormer is a common feature on many two-story houses. It is a parallel projection from the main plane of the roof that usually houses a window. The dormer is usually constructed to add space or natural light to an attic or top floor. The gable is not exactly part of the roof, but still an important term to recognize. It is the triangular part of the exterior wall that connects and supports the area between the pitched roof planes. The gable will also support the ridge beam.
Roofing continued:
Just like the rest of the house, the roof starts out as a frame. The frame is usually constructed of joists, trusses, and rafters. Together, these three types of beams make up a framework that gives the roof its shape and strength to support the weight of the roof plus snow if applicable. Asphalt shingles are standard roofing materials, but if you plan to use heavier materials like tile or slate, you may need to add extra supports at this stage. Once the frame is in place, it is covered in decking (like sheathing on a wall but usually stronger). Decking is the skin that covers the frame and creates the base that the rest of the roof will be built upon. The most common material for decking was once plywood. However, in recent decades oriented strand board (OSB) has taken over as the most common material for load-bearing planks in residential construction. OSB is similar to particle board, but instead of tiny bits of wood, it is made up of thin strips of wood. The strips are held together with resin and a small amount of wax to form a very strong plank. The first water barrier layer of the roof is the underlayment. Underlayment is installed directly on top of the decking. Mainly, it serves as a back-up water barrier in case any water makes it past the shingles. In cold climates, roofs may have an additional special underlayment that acts as a water and ice barrier. It can help protect from ice dams that form when the bottom layer of accumulated snow melts and refreezes at the edge of the roof. Some of these underlayments may have special properties such as being self-adhering and closing around nails for a watertight seal. In cold climates and areas prone to driving rain and high winds from hurricanes, the water and ice barrier might cover the whole roof. In more mild climates, ice and water barriers may still be used in vulnerable areas of the roof, like valleys, roof edges, and around penetrations in the roof. After the underlayment is installed, flashing is installed in areas of the roof that collect a lot of water. Valleys, where water from multiple roof planes is directed into a gushing stream, are always covered with flashing. The flashing is generally a thin layer of sheet metal that protects a vulnerable joint and directs water away from the area. Flashing is also used anywhere the decking is cut open for some type of penetration. For example, a chimney/dormer requires flashing all around it. The final outermost layer of the roof is the shingles or rubber roof. It is the part of the roof that is visible. The most common type of shingles are asphalt shingles due to their relative ease of installation, asphalt shingles will melt to each other in the hot sun when installed properly. Other common roof coverings are stone-slate shingles or metal roofing. Rubber roofing is used when a roof pitch is less than 3, because water will not drain fast enough on a flat roof.
Just like the rest of the house, the roof starts out as a frame. The frame is usually constructed of joists, trusses, and rafters. Together, these three types of beams make up a framework that gives the roof its shape and strength to support the weight of the roof plus snow if applicable. Asphalt shingles are standard roofing materials, but if you plan to use heavier materials like tile or slate, you may need to add extra supports at this stage. Once the frame is in place, it is covered in decking (like sheathing on a wall but usually stronger). Decking is the skin that covers the frame and creates the base that the rest of the roof will be built upon. The most common material for decking was once plywood. However, in recent decades oriented strand board (OSB) has taken over as the most common material for load-bearing planks in residential construction. OSB is similar to particle board, but instead of tiny bits of wood, it is made up of thin strips of wood. The strips are held together with resin and a small amount of wax to form a very strong plank. The first water barrier layer of the roof is the underlayment. Underlayment is installed directly on top of the decking. Mainly, it serves as a back-up water barrier in case any water makes it past the shingles. In cold climates, roofs may have an additional special underlayment that acts as a water and ice barrier. It can help protect from ice dams that form when the bottom layer of accumulated snow melts and refreezes at the edge of the roof. Some of these underlayments may have special properties such as being self-adhering and closing around nails for a watertight seal. In cold climates and areas prone to driving rain and high winds from hurricanes, the water and ice barrier might cover the whole roof. In more mild climates, ice and water barriers may still be used in vulnerable areas of the roof, like valleys, roof edges, and around penetrations in the roof. After the underlayment is installed, flashing is installed in areas of the roof that collect a lot of water. Valleys, where water from multiple roof planes is directed into a gushing stream, are always covered with flashing. The flashing is generally a thin layer of sheet metal that protects a vulnerable joint and directs water away from the area. Flashing is also used anywhere the decking is cut open for some type of penetration. For example, a chimney/dormer requires flashing all around it. The final outermost layer of the roof is the shingles or rubber roof. It is the part of the roof that is visible. The most common type of shingles are asphalt shingles due to their relative ease of installation, asphalt shingles will melt to each other in the hot sun when installed properly. Other common roof coverings are stone-slate shingles or metal roofing. Rubber roofing is used when a roof pitch is less than 3, because water will not drain fast enough on a flat roof.