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✅ SQL Functions 📊🧠

SQL functions are built-in operations used to manipulate, calculate, and transform data. They help in summarizing results, formatting values, and applying logic in queries.

1️⃣ Aggregate Functions
These return a single result from a group of rows.

• COUNT() – Counts rows
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees;

• SUM() – Adds values
SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT';

• AVG() – Returns average
SELECT AVG(age) FROM customers;

• MAX() / MIN() – Highest or lowest value
SELECT MAX(salary), MIN(salary) FROM employees;

2️⃣ String Functions

• UPPER() / LOWER() – Change case
SELECT UPPER(name), LOWER(city) FROM customers;

• CONCAT() – Join strings
SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM users;

• SUBSTRING() – Extract part of a string
SELECT SUBSTRING(name, 1, 3) FROM products;

• LENGTH() – Length of string
SELECT LENGTH(denoscription) FROM products;

3️⃣ Date Functions

• CURRENT_DATE / NOW() – Current date/time
SELECT CURRENT_DATE, NOW();

• DATE_ADD() / DATE_SUB() – Add or subtract days
SELECT DATE_ADD(hire_date, INTERVAL 30 DAY) FROM employees;

• DATEDIFF() – Difference between dates
SELECT DATEDIFF(end_date, start_date) FROM projects;

• YEAR() / MONTH() / DAY() – Extract parts
SELECT YEAR(order_date), MONTH(order_date) FROM orders;

4️⃣ Mathematical Functions

• ROUND() – Round decimals
SELECT ROUND(price, 2) FROM products;

• CEIL() / FLOOR() – Round up/down
SELECT CEIL(4.2), FLOOR(4.8);

• ABS() – Absolute value
SELECT ABS(balance) FROM accounts;

5️⃣ Conditional Function

• COALESCE() – Returns first non-null value
SELECT COALESCE(phone, 'Not Provided') FROM customers;

• CASE – If/else logic in SQL

  SELECT name,  
    CASE  
      WHEN salary > 50000 THEN 'High'  
      WHEN salary BETWEEN 30000 AND 50000 THEN 'Medium'  
      ELSE 'Low'  
    END AS salary_band  
  FROM employees;
  

🎯 Use These Functions To:
• Summarize data
• Clean and format strings
• Handle nulls
• Calculate time differences
• Add logic into queries

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

✅ SQL GROUP BY HAVING 📊

What is GROUP BY?
GROUP BY is used to group rows that have the same values in one or more columns. It’s mostly used with aggregate functions like SUM(), COUNT(), AVG() to get summarized results.

What is HAVING?
HAVING is like WHERE, but it works after grouping. It filters the grouped results. You can’t use aggregate functions in WHERE, so we use HAVING instead.

📌 Problem 1:
You want to find total sales made in each city.

SELECT city, SUM(sales) AS total_sales  
FROM customers  
GROUP BY city;

✅ This groups the sales by city and shows total per group.

📌 Problem 2:
Now, show only those cities where total sales are above ₹50,000.

SELECT city, SUM(sales) AS total_sales  
FROM customers  
GROUP BY city  
HAVING total_sales > 50000;

✅ `HAVING filters the result after grouping.

📌 Problem 3:
Find departments with more than 10 active employees.

SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS emp_count  
FROM employees  
WHERE active = 1  
GROUP BY department  
HAVING emp_count > 10;

✅ First, we filter rows using WHERE. Then group, then filter groups with HAVING.

💡 Use GROUP BY to summarize, HAVING to filter those summaries.

Double Tap ♥️ For More

✅ SQL JOINS 🔗📘

JOINS let you combine data from two or more tables based on related columns.

1️⃣ INNER JOIN
Returns only matching rows from both tables.

Problem: Get customers with their orders.

SELECT c.name, o.order_id  
FROM customers c  
INNER JOIN orders o ON c.id = o.customer_id;

✅ Only shows customers who have orders.

2️⃣ LEFT JOIN (or LEFT OUTER JOIN)
Returns all rows from the left table + matching rows from the right table. If no match, fills with NULL.

Problem: Show all customers, even if they didn’t order.

SELECT c.name, o.order_id  
FROM customers c  
LEFT JOIN orders o ON c.id = o.customer_id;

✅ Includes customers without orders.

3️⃣ RIGHT JOIN
Opposite of LEFT JOIN: keeps all rows from the right table.

4️⃣ FULL OUTER JOIN
Returns all rows from both tables. Where there’s no match, it shows NULL.

SELECT c.name, o.order_id  
FROM customers c  
FULL OUTER JOIN orders o ON c.id = o.customer_id;

✅ Includes customers with or without orders and orders with or without customers.

5️⃣ SELF JOIN
Table joins with itself.

Problem: Show employees and their managers.

SELECT e.name AS employee, m.name AS manager  
FROM employees e
JOIN employees m ON e.manager_id = m.id;

✅ Links each employee to their manager using a self join.

💡 Quick Summary:
• INNER JOIN → Only matches
• LEFT JOIN → All from left + matches
• RIGHT JOIN → All from right + matches
• FULL OUTER JOIN → Everything
• SELF JOIN → Table joins itself

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

✅ SQL Subqueries & Nested Queries 🧠🔍

Subqueries help you write powerful queries inside other queries. They're useful when you need intermediate results.

1️⃣ What is a Subquery?
A subquery is a query inside () that runs first and passes its result to the outer query.

Example: Get employees who earn above average salary.

SELECT name, salary  
FROM employees  
WHERE salary > (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees);

✅ Subquery calculates average salary → main query finds those above it.

2️⃣ Subquery in SELECT Clause
You can use subqueries to return values in each row.

Example: Show employee names with department name.

SELECT name,  
  (SELECT dept_name FROM departments d WHERE d.id = e.dept_id) AS department  
FROM employees e;

3️⃣ Subquery in FROM Clause
Use when you want to filter or group temporary results.

Example: Get department-wise highest salary.

SELECT dept_id, MAX(salary)  
FROM (SELECT * FROM employees WHERE active = 1) AS active_emps  
GROUP BY dept_id;

4️⃣ Correlated Subquery
A subquery that uses a value from the outer query row.

Example: Get employees with highest salary in their department.

SELECT name, salary  
FROM employees e
WHERE salary = (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees WHERE dept_id = e.dept_id);

✅ Subquery runs for each row using outer query value.

💡 Real Use Cases:
• Filter rows based on dynamic conditions
• Compare values across groups
• Fetch related info in SELECT

🎯 Practice Tasks:
• Write a query to find 2nd highest salary
• Use subquery to get customers who placed more than 3 orders
• Create a nested query to show top-selling product per category


✅ Solution for Practice Tasks 👇

1️⃣ Find 2nd Highest Salary

SELECT MAX(salary) AS second_highest_salary  
FROM employees  
WHERE salary < (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees);

▶️ Finds the highest salary less than the max salary → gives the 2nd highest.


2️⃣ Customers Who Placed More Than 3 Orders

SELECT customer_id  
FROM orders  
GROUP BY customer_id  
HAVING COUNT(order_id) > 3;

▶️ Groups orders by customer and filters those with more than 3.

You can join to get customer names:

SELECT name  
FROM customers  
WHERE id IN (
  SELECT customer_id  
  FROM orders  
  GROUP BY customer_id  
  HAVING COUNT(order_id) > 3
);

3️⃣ Top-Selling Product Per Category

SELECT p.name, p.category_id, p.sales  
FROM products p  
WHERE p.sales = (
  SELECT MAX(sales)  
  FROM products  
  WHERE category_id = p.category_id
);

▶️ Correlated subquery finds the highest sales within each category.

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

✅ SQL CASE Statement 🎯

The CASE statement lets you apply conditional logic inside SQL queries — like if/else in programming.

1️⃣ Basic CASE Syntax

SELECT name, salary,
  CASE  
    WHEN salary > 80000 THEN 'High'  
    WHEN salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 80000 THEN 'Medium'  
    ELSE 'Low'  
  END AS salary_level  
FROM employees;

✅ Categorizes salaries as High, Medium, or Low.

2️⃣ CASE in ORDER BY
Sort based on custom logic.

SELECT name, department  
FROM employees  
ORDER BY  
  CASE department  
    WHEN 'HR' THEN 1  
    WHEN 'Engineering' THEN 2  
    ELSE 3  
  END;

✅ HR shows up first, then Engineering, then others.

3️⃣ CASE in WHERE Clause
Control filtering logic conditionally.

SELECT *  
FROM orders  
WHERE status =  
  CASE  
    WHEN customer_type = 'VIP' THEN 'priority'  
    ELSE 'standard'  
  END;

4️⃣ Nested CASE (Advanced)

SELECT name, marks,  
  CASE  
    WHEN marks >= 90 THEN 'A'  
    WHEN marks >= 75 THEN  
      CASE WHEN marks >= 85 THEN 'B+' ELSE 'B' END  
    ELSE 'C'  
  END AS grade  
FROM students;

🎯 Use CASE When You Want To:
• Create labels or buckets
• Replace multiple IF conditions
• Make results more readable

📝 Practice Tasks:
1. Add a column that shows ‘Pass’ or ‘Fail’ based on marks
2. Create a salary band (Low/Medium/High) using CASE
3. Use CASE to sort products as 'Electronics' first, then 'Clothing'

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

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Date :- 11th January 2026

✅ SQL Programming: Handling NULL Values 🛠️

Missing data is common in databases. COALESCE() helps you fill in defaults and avoid null-related issues.

1️⃣ What is COALESCE?
Returns the first non-null value in a list.

SELECT name, COALESCE(phone, 'Not Provided') AS contact  
FROM customers;

✅ If phone is NULL, it shows ‘Not Provided’.

2️⃣ COALESCE with Calculations
Prevent nulls from breaking math.

SELECT name, salary, COALESCE(bonus, 0) AS bonus,  
       salary + COALESCE(bonus, 0) AS total_income  
FROM employees;

✅ If bonus is NULL, treat it as 0 to compute total.

3️⃣ Nested COALESCE
Use multiple fallback options.

SELECT name, COALESCE(email, alt_email, 'No Email') AS contact_email  
FROM users;

✅ Checks email, then alt_email, then default text.

4️⃣ COALESCE in WHERE clause
Filter even when data has nulls.

SELECT *  
FROM products  
WHERE COALESCE(category, 'Uncategorized') = 'Electronics';

🎯 Use COALESCE When You Want To:
• Replace NULLs with defaults
• Keep math & filters working
• Avoid errors in reports or dashboards

📝 Practice Tasks:
1. Replace nulls in city with ‘Unknown’
2. Show total amount = price + tax (tax may be null)
3. Replace nulls in denoscription with ‘No Info Available’

✅ Solution for Practice Tasks 👇

1️⃣ Replace NULLs in city with 'Unknown'

SELECT name, COALESCE(city, 'Unknown') AS city  
FROM customers;

2️⃣ Show total amount = price + tax (tax may be NULL)

SELECT product_name, price, COALESCE(tax, 0) AS tax,  
       price + COALESCE(tax, 0) AS total_amount  
FROM products;

3️⃣ Replace NULLs in denoscription with 'No Info Available'

SELECT product_name, COALESCE(denoscription, 'No Info Available') AS denoscription  
FROM products;

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✅ SQL Window Functions 🧠🪟

Window functions perform calculations across rows that are related to the current row — without collapsing the result like GROUP BY.

1️⃣ ROW_NUMBER() – Assigns a unique row number per partition

SELECT name, department,
  ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY department ORDER BY salary DESC) AS rank
FROM employees;

➤ Gives ranking within each department

2️⃣ RANK() & DENSE_RANK() – Ranking with gaps (RANK) or without gaps (DENSE_RANK)

SELECT name, salary,
  RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS rank
FROM employees;

3️⃣ LAG() & LEAD() – Access previous or next row value

SELECT name, salary,
  LAG(salary) OVER (ORDER BY salary) AS prev_salary,
  LEAD(salary) OVER (ORDER BY salary) AS next_salary
FROM employees;

➤ Compare salary trends row-wise

4️⃣ SUM(), AVG(), COUNT() OVER() – Running totals, moving averages, etc.

SELECT department, salary,
  SUM(salary) OVER (PARTITION BY department) AS dept_total
FROM employees;

5️⃣ NTILE(n) – Divides rows into n equal buckets

SELECT name, salary,
  NTILE(4) OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS quartile
FROM employees;

💡 Why Use Window Functions:
• Perform row-wise calculations
• Avoid GROUP BY limitations
• Enable advanced analytics (ranking, trends, etc.)

🧪 Practice Task:
Write a query to find the top 2 earners in each department using ROW_NUMBER().

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

✅ SQL Real-World Use Cases 💼🧠

SQL is the backbone of data analysis and automation in many domains. Here’s how it powers real work:

1️⃣ Sales & CRM
Use Case: Sales Tracking & Pipeline Management
• Track sales per region, product, rep
• Identify top-performing leads
• Calculate conversion rates
SQL Task:

SELECT region, SUM(sales_amount)  
FROM deals  
GROUP BY region;

2️⃣ Finance
Use Case: Monthly Revenue and Expense Reporting
• Aggregate revenue by month
• Analyze profit margins
• Flag unusual transactions
SQL Task:

SELECT MONTH(date), SUM(revenue - expense) AS profit  
FROM finance_data  
GROUP BY MONTH(date);

3️⃣ HR Analytics
Use Case: Employee Attrition Analysis
• Track tenure, exits, departments
• Calculate average retention
• Segment by age, role, or location
SQL Task:

SELECT department, COUNT(*)  
FROM employees  
WHERE exit_date IS NOT NULL  
GROUP BY department;

4️⃣ E-commerce
Use Case: Customer Order Behavior
• Find most ordered products
• Time between repeat orders
• Cart abandonment patterns
SQL Task:

SELECT customer_id, COUNT(order_id)  
FROM orders  
GROUP BY customer_id  
HAVING COUNT(order_id) > 5;

5️⃣ Healthcare
Use Case: Patient Visit Frequency
• Find frequent visitors
• Analyze doctor performance
• Calculate average stay duration
SQL Task:

SELECT patient_id, COUNT(*) AS visits  
FROM appointments  
GROUP BY patient_id;

6️⃣ Marketing
Use Case: Campaign Performance by Channel
• Track leads, clicks, conversions
• Compare cost-per-lead by platform
SQL Task:

SELECT channel, SUM(conversions)/SUM(clicks) AS conv_rate  
FROM campaign_data  
GROUP BY channel;

🧪 Practice Task:
Pick a dataset (orders, users, sales)
→ Write 3 queries: summary, trend, filter
→ Visualize the output in Excel or Power BI

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

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✅ Useful Platform to Practice SQL Programming 🧠🖥️

Learning SQL is just the first step — practice is what builds real skill. Here are the best platforms for hands-on SQL:

1️⃣ LeetCode – For Interview-Oriented SQL Practice
• Focus: Real interview-style problems
• Levels: Easy to Hard
• Schema + Sample Data Provided
• Great for: Data Analyst, Data Engineer, FAANG roles
✔ Tip: Start with Easy → filter by “Database” tag
✔ Popular Section: Database → Top 50 SQL Questions
Example Problem: “Find duplicate emails in a user table” → Practice filtering, GROUP BY, HAVING

2️⃣ HackerRank – Structured & Beginner-Friendly
• Focus: Step-by-step SQL track
• Has certification tests (SQL Basic, Intermediate)
• Problem sets by topic: SELECT, JOINs, Aggregations, etc.
✔ Tip: Follow the full SQL track
✔ Bonus: Company-specific challenges
Try: “Revising Aggregations – The Count Function” → Build confidence with small wins

3️⃣ Mode Analytics – Real-World SQL in Business Context
• Focus: Business intelligence + SQL
• Uses real-world datasets (e.g., e-commerce, finance)
• Has an in-browser SQL editor with live data
✔ Best for: Practicing dashboard-level queries
✔ Tip: Try the SQL case studies & tutorials

4️⃣ StrataScratch – Interview Questions from Real Companies
• 500+ problems from companies like Uber, Netflix, Google
• Split by company, difficulty, and topic
✔ Best for: Intermediate to advanced level
✔ Tip: Try “Hard” questions after doing 30–50 easy/medium

5️⃣ DataLemur – Short, Practical SQL Problems
• Crisp and to the point
• Good UI, fast learning
• Real interview-style logic
✔ Use when: You want fast, smart SQL drills

📌 How to Practice Effectively:
• Spend 20–30 mins/day
• Focus on JOINs, GROUP BY, HAVING, Subqueries
• Analyze problem → write → debug → re-write
• After solving, explain your logic out loud

🧪 Practice Task:
Try solving 5 SQL questions from LeetCode or HackerRank this week. Start with SELECT, WHERE, and GROUP BY.

💬 Tap ❤️ for more!

✅ Data Analytics Roadmap for Freshers in 2025 🚀📊

1️⃣ Understand What a Data Analyst Does
🔍 Analyze data, find insights, create dashboards, support business decisions.

2️⃣ Start with Excel
📈 Learn:
– Basic formulas
– Charts & Pivot Tables
– Data cleaning
💡 Excel is still the #1 tool in many companies.

3️⃣ Learn SQL
🧩 SQL helps you pull and analyze data from databases.
Start with:
– SELECT, WHERE, JOIN, GROUP BY
🛠️ Practice on platforms like W3Schools or Mode Analytics.

4️⃣ Pick a Programming Language
🐍 Start with Python (easier) or R
– Learn pandas, matplotlib, numpy
– Do small projects (e.g. analyze sales data)

5️⃣ Data Visualization Tools
📊 Learn:
– Power BI or Tableau
– Build simple dashboards
💡 Start with free versions or YouTube tutorials.

6️⃣ Practice with Real Data
🔍 Use sites like Kaggle or Data.gov
– Clean, analyze, visualize
– Try small case studies (sales report, customer trends)

7️⃣ Create a Portfolio
💻 Share projects on:
– GitHub
– Notion or a simple website
📌 Add visuals + brief explanations of your insights.

8️⃣ Improve Soft Skills
🗣️ Focus on:
– Presenting data in simple words
– Asking good questions
– Thinking critically about patterns

9️⃣ Certifications to Stand Out
🎓 Try:
– Google Data Analytics (Coursera)
– IBM Data Analyst
– LinkedIn Learning basics

🔟 Apply for Internships & Entry Jobs
🎯 Titles to look for:
– Data Analyst (Intern)
– Junior Analyst
– Business Analyst

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✅ How to Build a Job-Ready Data Analytics Portfolio 💼📊

1️⃣ Pick Solid Datasets

• Public: Kaggle, UCI ML Repo, data.gov
• Business-like: e-commerce, churn, marketing spend, HR attrition
• Size: 5k–200k rows, relatively clean

2️⃣ Create 3 Signature Projects

• SQL: Customer Cohort & Retention (joins, window functions)
• BI: Executive Sales Dashboard (Power BI/Tableau, drill-through, DAX/calculated fields)
• Python: Marketing ROI & Attribution (pandas, seaborn, A/B test basics)

3️⃣ Tell a Story, Not Just Charts

• Problem → Approach → Insight → Action
• Add one business recommendation per insight

4️⃣ Document Like a Pro

• README: problem, data source, methods, results, next steps
• Screenshots or GIFs of dashboards
• Repo structure: /data, /notebooks, /sql, /reports

5️⃣ Show Measurable Impact

• “Reduced reporting time by 70% with automated Power BI pipeline”
• “Identified 12% churn segment with a retention playbook”

6️⃣ Make It Easy to Review

• Share live dashboards (Publish to Web), short Loom/YouTube walkthrough
• Include SQL snippets
• Pin top 3 projects on GitHub and LinkedIn Featured

7️⃣ Iterate With Feedback

• Post drafts on LinkedIn, ask “What would you improve?”
• Apply suggestions, track updates in a CHANGELOG
🎯 Goal: 3 projects, 3 stories, 3 measurable outcomes.

💬 Double Tap ❤️ For More!

Core SQL Interview Questions. With answers

1 What is SQL
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language
• You use it to read and manage data in relational databases
• Used in MySQL, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Oracle

2 What is an RDBMS
• Relational Database Management System
• Stores data in tables with rows and columns
• Uses keys to link tables
• Example. Customer table linked to Orders table using customer_id

3 What is a table
• Structured storage for data
• Rows are records
• Columns are attributes
• Example. One row equals one customer

4 What is a primary key
• Uniquely identifies each row
• Cannot be NULL
• No duplicate values
• Example. user_id in users table

5 What is a foreign key
• Links one table to another
• Refers to a primary key in another table
• Allows duplicate values
• Example. user_id in orders table

6 Difference between primary key and foreign key
• Primary key ensures uniqueness
• Foreign key ensures relationship
• One table can have one primary key
• One table can have multiple foreign keys

7 What is NULL
• Represents missing or unknown value
• Not equal to zero or empty string
• Use IS NULL or IS NOT NULL to check

8 What are constraints
• Rules applied on columns
• Maintain data quality
• Common constraints
– NOT NULL
– UNIQUE
– PRIMARY KEY
– FOREIGN KEY
– CHECK

9 What are data types
• Define type of data stored
• Common types
– INT for numbers
– VARCHAR for text
– DATE for dates
– FLOAT or DECIMAL for decimals

10 Interview tip you must remember
• Always explain with a small example
• Speak logic before syntax
• Keep answers short and direct

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When preparing for an SQL project-based interview, the focus typically shifts from theoretical knowledge to practical application. Here are some SQL project-based interview questions that could help assess your problem-solving skills and experience:

1. Database Design and Schema
- Question: Describe a database schema you have designed in a past project. What were the key entities, and how did you establish relationships between them?
- Follow-Up: How did you handle normalization? Did you denormalize any tables for performance reasons?

2. Data Modeling
- Question: How would you model a database for an e-commerce application? What tables would you include, and how would they relate to each other?
- Follow-Up: How would you design the schema to handle scenarios like discount codes, product reviews, and inventory management?

3. Query Optimization
- Question: Can you discuss a time when you optimized an SQL query? What was the original query, and what changes did you make to improve its performance?
- Follow-Up: What tools or techniques did you use to identify and resolve the performance issues?

4. ETL Processes
- Question: Describe an ETL (Extract, Transform, Load) process you have implemented. How did you handle data extraction, transformation, and loading?
- Follow-Up: How did you ensure data quality and consistency during the ETL process?

5. Handling Large Datasets
- Question: In a project where you dealt with large datasets, how did you manage performance and storage issues?
- Follow-Up: What indexing strategies or partitioning techniques did you use?

6. Joins and Subqueries
- Question: Provide an example of a complex query you wrote involving multiple joins and subqueries. What was the business problem you were solving?
- Follow-Up: How did you ensure that the query performed efficiently?

7. Stored Procedures and Functions
- Question: Have you created stored procedures or functions in any of your projects? Can you describe one and explain why you chose to encapsulate the logic in a stored procedure?
- Follow-Up: How did you handle error handling and logging within the stored procedure?

8. Data Integrity and Constraints
- Question: How did you enforce data integrity in your SQL projects? Can you give examples of constraints (e.g., primary keys, foreign keys, unique constraints) you implemented?
- Follow-Up: How did you handle situations where constraints needed to be temporarily disabled or modified?

9. Version Control and Collaboration
- Question: How did you manage database version control in your projects? What tools or practices did you use to ensure collaboration with other developers?
- Follow-Up: How did you handle conflicts or issues arising from multiple developers working on the same database?

10. Data Migration
- Question: Describe a data migration project you worked on. How did you ensure that the migration was successful, and what steps did you take to handle data inconsistencies or errors?
- Follow-Up: How did you test the migration process before moving to the production environment?

11. Security and Permissions
- Question: In your SQL projects, how did you manage database security?
- Follow-Up: How did you handle encryption or sensitive data within the database?

12. Handling Unstructured Data
- Question: Have you worked with unstructured or semi-structured data in an SQL environment?
- Follow-Up: What challenges did you face, and how did you overcome them?

13. Real-Time Data Processing
   - Question: Can you describe a project where you handled real-time data processing using SQL? What were the key challenges, and how did you address them?
   - Follow-Up: How did you ensure the performance and reliability of the real-time data processing system?

Be prepared to discuss specific examples from your past work and explain your thought process in detail.

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✅ Basic SQL Queries Interview Questions With Answers 🖥️

1. What does SELECT do
• SELECT fetches data from a table
• You choose columns you want to see
Example: SELECT name, salary FROM employees;

2. What does FROM do
• FROM tells SQL where data lives
• It specifies the table name
Example: SELECT * FROM customers;

3. What is WHERE clause
• WHERE filters rows
• It runs before aggregation
Example: SELECT * FROM orders WHERE status = 'Delivered';

4. Difference between WHERE and HAVING
• WHERE filters rows before GROUP BY
• HAVING filters groups after aggregation
Example: WHERE filters orders, HAVING filters total_sales

5. How do you sort data
• Use ORDER BY
• Default order is ASC
Example: SELECT * FROM employees ORDER BY salary DESC;

6. How do you sort by multiple columns
• SQL sorts left to right
Example: SELECT * FROM students ORDER BY class ASC, marks DESC;

7. What is LIMIT
• LIMIT restricts number of rows returned
• Useful for top N queries
Example: SELECT * FROM products LIMIT 5;

8. What is OFFSET
• OFFSET skips rows
• Used with LIMIT for pagination
Example: SELECT * FROM products LIMIT 5 OFFSET 10;

9. How do you filter on multiple conditions
• Use AND, OR
Example: SELECT * FROM users WHERE city = 'Delhi' AND age > 25;

10. Difference between AND and OR
• AND needs all conditions true
• OR needs one condition true

Quick interview advice
• Always say execution order: FROM → WHERE → SELECT → ORDER BY → LIMIT
• Write clean examples
• Speak logic first, syntax next¹

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