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SQL Programming Resources
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Today, let's move to the next topic of SQL Roadmap:

HAVING vs WHERE

Why HAVING exists

- WHERE filters individual rows.
- Aggregations work on groups.
- You need HAVING to filter groups.

Key difference
- WHERE filters rows before grouping
- HAVING filters groups after aggregation

Think in order
- FROM reads table
- WHERE filters rows
- GROUP BY creates groups
- HAVING filters groups

Example table. orders
order_id | customer_id | amount | order_date

WHERE with aggregation
SELECT customer_id, SUM(amount)
FROM orders
WHERE amount > 5000
GROUP BY customer_id;


What this query does
- Removes orders below 5,000
- Groups remaining orders by customer
- Calculates total high value spend per customer

HAVING example
SELECT customer_id, SUM(amount)
FROM orders
GROUP BY customer_id
HAVING SUM(amount) > 20000;


What this query does
- Groups all orders by customer
- Calculates total spend per customer
- Keeps only customers with total spend above 20,000

WHERE vs HAVING side by side

Use WHERE when
- Filtering raw rows
- Condition does not involve aggregate functions

Use HAVING when
- Filtering aggregated results
- Condition uses SUM, COUNT, AVG

Combined WHERE and HAVING
SELECT customer_id, COUNT(*)
FROM orders
WHERE order_date >= '2024-01-01'
GROUP BY customer_id
HAVING COUNT(*) >= 5;


What this query does
- Keeps orders from 2024 onward
- Groups orders by customer
- Counts orders per customer
- Returns customers with at least 5 orders

Common beginner mistakes
- Using HAVING without GROUP BY
- Using WHERE with SUM or COUNT
- Mixing WHERE and HAVING logic

Interview one-liner
WHERE filters rows. HAVING filters groups.

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4
Please go through this top 5 SQL projects with Datasets that you can practice and can add in your resume

🚀1. Web Analytics:
(
https://www.kaggle.com/zynicide/wine-reviews)

🚀2. Healthcare Data Analysis:
(
https://www.kaggle.com/cdc/mortality)

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(
https://www.kaggle.com/olistbr/brazilian-ecommerce)

🚀4. Inventory Management:
(
https://www.kaggle.com/code/govindji/inventory-management)


🚀 5. Analysis of Sales Data:
(
https://www.kaggle.com/kyanyoga/sample-sales-data)

Small suggestion from my side for non tech students: kindly pick those datasets which you like the subject in general, that way you will be more excited to practice it, instead of just doing it for the sake of resume, you will learn SQL more passionately, since it’s a programming language try to make it more exciting for yourself.

Hope this piece of information helps you

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Today, let's move to the next topic of SQL Roadmap:

SQL JOINS

What a JOIN is
• A JOIN combines data from two or more tables
• Tables connect using a common column
• That column is usually an ID
• JOIN answers questions one table cannot answer

Why JOINs exist
• Customer details sit in one table
• Orders sit in another table
• JOIN links customers to their orders

Example tables
customers 
customer_id | name | city 
orders 
order_id | customer_id | amount 

Connection
• customers.customer_id is primary key
• orders.customer_id is foreign key
• This shared column enables JOIN

Types of JOINs you must know
• INNER JOIN
• LEFT JOIN
• RIGHT JOIN
• FULL JOIN
• SELF JOIN

INNER JOIN
• Returns only matching rows from both tables
• Drops anything without a match
SELECT name, amount 
FROM customers
INNER JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id;

• Matches customers with their orders
• Shows only customers who placed orders
• Removes customers with no orders
• Removes orders without customers

LEFT JOIN
• Returns all rows from left table
• Matches data from right table
• Shows NULL when no match exists
SELECT name, amount 
FROM customers
LEFT JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id;

• Returns every customer
• Shows order amount if available
• Shows NULL if customer never ordered

RIGHT JOIN
• Returns all rows from right table
• Matches data from left table
• Opposite of LEFT JOIN
SELECT name, amount 
FROM customers
RIGHT JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id;

• Returns all orders
• Shows customer name if exists
• Shows NULL for missing customer data

FULL JOIN
• Returns all rows from both tables
• Matches where possible
• Shows NULL when no match
SELECT name, amount 
FROM customers
FULL JOIN orders
ON customers.customer_id = orders.customer_id;

• Shows all customers
• Shows all orders
• Includes unmatched data from both sides

SELF JOIN
• Table joins with itself
• Used for hierarchy or comparison
SELECT e.name, m.name AS manager_name 
FROM employees e
LEFT JOIN employees m
ON e.manager_id = m.employee_id;

• Matches employee with manager
• Uses same table twice
• Shows reporting hierarchy

JOIN Comparison Summary
• INNER JOIN: Only matching data
• LEFT JOIN: All left table rows
• RIGHT JOIN: All right table rows
• FULL JOIN: Everything from both tables
• SELF JOIN: Table joins itself

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If you want to Excel at using the most used database language in the world, learn these powerful SQL features:

Wildcards (%, _) – Flexible pattern matching
Window Functions – ROW_NUMBER(), RANK(), DENSE_RANK(), LEAD(), LAG()
Common Table Expressions (CTEs) – WITH for better readability
Recursive Queries – Handle hierarchical data
STRING Functions – LEFT(), RIGHT(), LEN(), TRIM(), UPPER(), LOWER()
Date Functions – DATEDIFF(), DATEADD(), FORMAT()
Pivot & Unpivot – Transform row data into columns
Aggregate Functions – SUM(), AVG(), COUNT(), MIN(), MAX()
Joins & Self Joins – Master INNER, LEFT, RIGHT, FULL, SELF JOIN
Indexing – Speed up queries with CREATE INDEX

Like it if you need a complete tutorial on all these topics! 👍❤️

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SQL JOINS — Scenario-Based Interview Questions with Answers

Scenario 1: Find customers who have never placed an order

Tables: customers(customer_id, name) orders(order_id, customer_id);

Question: Business wants a list of customers with zero orders.

Answer:

SELECT c.customer_id, c.name FROM customers c LEFT JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id WHERE o.customer_id IS NULL;

Why this works
• LEFT JOIN keeps all customers
• Orders missing → NULL
• WHERE filters only non-ordering customers

Scenario 2: Get total revenue per customer, including customers with no orders

Question: Show every customer and their total spend. If no orders, show 0.

Answer:

SELECT c.customer_id, c.name, COALESCE(SUM(o.amount), 0) AS total_spend FROM customers c LEFT JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id GROUP BY c.customer_id, c.name;

Explanation
• LEFT JOIN keeps all customers
• SUM aggregates orders
• COALESCE converts NULL to 0

Scenario 3: Find orders that don’t have a matching customer

Question: Audit data to find orphan orders.

Answer:

SELECT o.order_id, o.customer_id FROM orders o LEFT JOIN customers c ON o.customer_id = c.customer_id WHERE c.customer_id IS NULL;

Explanation
• LEFT JOIN from orders
• Missing customers become NULL
• Filters invalid data

Scenario 4: Get only customers who have placed at least one order

Question: Marketing wants only active customers.

Answer:

SELECT DISTINCT c.customer_id, c.name FROM customers c INNER JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id;

Explanation
• INNER JOIN keeps only matching rows
• Customers without orders are excluded

Scenario 5: Find customers with more than 3 orders

Answer:

SELECT c.customer_id, c.name, COUNT(o.order_id) AS order_count FROM customers c INNER JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id GROUP BY c.customer_id, c.name HAVING COUNT(o.order_id) > 3;

Explanation
• JOIN combines data
• GROUP BY customer
• HAVING filters aggregated count

Scenario 6: Show latest order for each customer

Answer:

SELECT c.customer_id, c.name, MAX(o.order_date) AS last_order_date FROM customers c INNER JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id GROUP BY c.customer_id, c.name;

Explanation
• JOIN connects customers and orders
• MAX finds latest order per customer

Scenario 7: Find customers who ordered in 2024 but not in 2025

Answer:

SELECT DISTINCT c.customer_id, c.name FROM customers c INNER JOIN orders o2024 ON c.customer_id = o2024.customer_id LEFT JOIN orders o2025 ON c.customer_id = o2025.customer_id AND o2025.order_date >= '2025-01-01' WHERE o2024.order_date BETWEEN '2024-01-01' AND '2024-12-31' AND o2025.customer_id IS NULL;

Explanation
• INNER JOIN ensures 2024 orders
• LEFT JOIN checks absence in 2025
• NULL filter removes 2025 buyers

Scenario 8: Employee-Manager hierarchy (SELF JOIN)

Table: employees(employee_id, name, manager_id);

Answer:

SELECT e.name AS employee, m.name AS manager FROM employees e LEFT JOIN employees m ON e.manager_id = m.employee_id;

Explanation
• Same table joined twice
• Shows reporting structure

Scenario 9: Revenue by city

Answer:

SELECT c.city, SUM(o.amount) AS revenue FROM customers c INNER JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id GROUP BY c.city;

Explanation
• JOIN links customers to orders
• GROUP BY city
• SUM calculates revenue

Scenario 10: Duplicate explosion after JOIN (classic trap)

Question: Why does this query show inflated revenue?

SELECT SUM(o.amount) FROM customers c JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id;

Answer:
• Customer table may have duplicates
• JOIN multiplies rows
• Revenue gets inflated

Fix:

SELECT SUM(amount) FROM orders; or deduplicate customers before joining.

Interview golden rule for JOINS
Always explain:
1️⃣ Which table is LEFT
2️⃣ Which table is RIGHT
3️⃣ What rows are kept
4️⃣ Where NULLs appear

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SQL Detailed Roadmap
|
| | |-- Fundamentals
| |-- Introduction to Databases
| | |-- What SQL does
| | |-- Relational model
| | |-- Tables, rows, columns
| |-- Keys and Constraints
| | |-- Primary keys
| | |-- Foreign keys
| | |-- Unique and check constraints
| |-- Normalization
| | |-- 1NF, 2NF, 3NF
| | |-- ER diagrams

| | |-- Core SQL
| |-- SQL Basics
| | |-- SELECT, WHERE, ORDER BY
| | |-- GROUP BY and HAVING
| | |-- JOINS: INNER, LEFT, RIGHT, FULL
| |-- Intermediate SQL
| | |-- Subqueries
| | |-- CTEs
| | |-- CASE statements
| | |-- Aggregations
| |-- Advanced SQL
| | |-- Window functions
| | |-- Analytical functions
| | |-- Ranking, moving averages, lag and lead
| | |-- UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT

| | |-- Data Management
| |-- Data Types
| | |-- Numeric, text, date, JSON
| |-- Indexes
| | |-- B tree and hash indexes
| | |-- When to create indexes
| |-- Transactions
| | |-- ACID properties
| |-- Views
| | |-- Standard views
| | |-- Materialized views

| | |-- Database Design
| |-- Schema Design
| | |-- Star schema
| | |-- Snowflake schema
| |-- Fact and Dimension Tables
| |-- Constraints for clean data

| | |-- Performance Tuning
| |-- Query Optimization
| | |-- Execution plans
| | |-- Index usage
| | |-- Reducing scans
| |-- Partitioning
| | |-- Horizontal partitioning
| | |-- Sharding basics

| | |-- SQL for Analytics
| |-- KPI calculations
| |-- Cohort analysis
| |-- Funnel analysis
| |-- Churn and retention tables
| |-- Time based aggregations
| |-- Window functions for metrics

| | |-- SQL for Data Engineering
| |-- ETL Workflows
| | |-- Staging tables
| | |-- Transformations
| | |-- Incremental loads
| |-- Data Warehousing
| | |-- Snowflake
| | |-- Redshift
| | |-- BigQuery
| |-- dbt Basics
| | |-- Models
| | |-- Tests
| | |-- Lineage

| | |-- Tools and Platforms
| |-- PostgreSQL
| |-- MySQL
| |-- SQL Server
| |-- Oracle
| |-- SQLite
| |-- Cloud SQL
| |-- BigQuery UI
| |-- Snowflake Worksheets

| | |-- Projects
| |-- Build a sales reporting system
| |-- Create a star schema from raw CSV files
| |-- Design a customer segmentation query
| |-- Build a churn dashboard dataset
| |-- Optimize slow queries in a sample DB
| |-- Create an analytics pipeline with dbt

| | |-- Soft Skills and Career Prep
| |-- SQL interview patterns
| |-- Joins practice
| |-- Window function drills
| |-- Query writing speed
| |-- Git and GitHub
| |-- Data storytelling

| | |-- Bonus Topics
| |-- NoSQL intro
| |-- Working with JSON fields
| |-- Spatial SQL
| |-- Time series tables
| |-- CDC concepts
| |-- Real time analytics

| | |-- Community and Growth
| |-- LeetCode SQL
| |-- Kaggle datasets with SQL
| |-- GitHub projects
| |-- LinkedIn posts
| |-- Open source contributions

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Handling NULL Values in SQL

What is NULL in SQL?
NULL means missing or unknown data.

It does NOT mean:
- 0
- Empty string ''
- False

👉 NULL = no value at all

Why NULLs exist in real data

Real business data is messy:
- Customer didn’t provide city
- Order amount not updated yet
- Employee not assigned a manager

So databases allow NULLs.

Example Table

Data: customers
customer_id: 1, name: Rahul, city: Pune, email: rahul@gmail.com
customer_id: 2, name: Neha, city: NULL, email: neha@gmail.com
customer_id: 3, name: Aman, city: Delhi, email: NULL

🚫 Biggest Beginner Mistake
This is WRONG

SELECT * FROM customers WHERE city = NULL;


👉 This will return no rows

Why? Because NULL cannot be compared using = or !=

Correct Way to Handle NULL
1️⃣ IS NULL: Used to find missing values

SELECT * FROM customers WHERE city IS NULL;


What this query does:
- Scans all rows
- Returns customers where city is missing

2️⃣ IS NOT NULL: Used to exclude missing values

SELECT * FROM customers WHERE email IS NOT NULL;


What this query does:
- Returns customers who have email
- Removes rows with NULL email

NULLs in JOINs (Very Important)
Customers data:
customer_id: 1, name: Rahul
customer_id: 2, name: Neha
customer_id: 3, name: Aman

Orders data:
order_id: 101, customer_id: 1, amount: 5000
order_id: 102, customer_id: 1, amount: 3000

LEFT JOIN with NULL check
👉 Find customers with NO orders

SELECT c.customer_id, c.name
FROM customers c
LEFT JOIN orders o ON c.customer_id = o.customer_id
WHERE o.customer_id IS NULL;


What this query does:
- Keeps all customers
- Matches orders where possible
- Filters customers without orders

NULLs in Aggregations
COUNT behavior (INTERVIEW FAVORITE)

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customers;


👉 Counts all rows

SELECT COUNT(city) FROM customers;


👉 Counts only non-NULL cities

Example

SELECT COUNT(email) FROM customers;


Counts customers who have email
Ignores NULL emails

Handling NULL using COALESCE

SELECT name, COALESCE(city, 'Unknown') AS city
FROM customers;


What this query does:
- If city exists → show city
- If city is NULL → show “Unknown”

NULLs in SUM / AVG

SELECT SUM(amount) FROM orders;


👉 NULL values are ignored, not treated as 0
But if all rows are NULL, result is NULL.
Safe approach:

SELECT COALESCE(SUM(amount), 0) FROM orders;


NULL vs Empty String
- NULL: No value
- '': Empty value
WHERE email IS NULL -- missing
WHERE email = '' -- empty but exists


Common NULL Mistakes (Must Avoid)
Using = NULL
Forgetting NULLs in LEFT JOIN
Assuming COUNT(column) counts NULL
Ignoring NULL replacement in reports

Interview One-Liner 💡
> NULL represents missing data and must be handled using IS NULL, IS NOT NULL, or COALESCE, not with =.

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Here are some commonly asked SQL interview questions along with brief answers:

1. What is SQL?
- SQL stands for Structured Query Language, used for managing and manipulating relational databases.

2. What are the types of SQL commands?
- SQL commands can be broadly categorized into four types: Data Definition Language (DDL), Data Manipulation Language (DML), Data Control Language (DCL), and Transaction Control Language (TCL).

3. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR data types?
- CHAR is a fixed-length character data type, while VARCHAR is a variable-length character data type. CHAR will always occupy the same amount of storage space, while VARCHAR will only use the necessary space to store the actual data.

4. What is a primary key?
- A primary key is a column or a set of columns that uniquely identifies each row in a table. It ensures data integrity by enforcing uniqueness and can be used to establish relationships between tables.

5. What is a foreign key?
- A foreign key is a column or a set of columns in one table that refers to the primary key in another table. It establishes a relationship between two tables and ensures referential integrity.

6. What is a JOIN in SQL?
- JOIN is used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column between them. There are different types of JOINs, including INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, and FULL JOIN.

7. What is the difference between INNER JOIN and OUTER JOIN?
- INNER JOIN returns only the rows that have matching values in both tables, while OUTER JOIN (LEFT, RIGHT, FULL) returns all rows from one or both tables, with NULL values in columns where there is no match.

8. What is the difference between GROUP BY and ORDER BY?
- GROUP BY is used to group rows that have the same values into summary rows, typically used with aggregate functions like SUM, COUNT, AVG, etc., while ORDER BY is used to sort the result set based on one or more columns.

9. What is a subquery?
- A subquery is a query nested within another query, used to return data that will be used in the main query. Subqueries can be used in SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements.

10. What is normalization in SQL?
- Normalization is the process of organizing data in a database to reduce redundancy and dependency. It involves dividing large tables into smaller tables and defining relationships between them to improve data integrity and efficiency.

Around 90% questions will be asked from sql in data analytics interview, so please make sure to practice SQL skills using websites like stratascratch. ☺️💪
3
Which condition correctly finds rows where city is missing?
Anonymous Quiz
24%
A. city = NULL
11%
B. city != NULL
59%
C. city IS NULL
6%
D. city = ''
3
You want to show 0 instead of NULL for total sales. Which function should you use?
Anonymous Quiz
31%
A. ISNULL
8%
B. NVL
49%
C. COALESCE
12%
D. NULLIF
3
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SQL Interview Questions for 0-1 year of Experience (Asked in Top Product-Based Companies).

Sharpen your SQL skills with these real interview questions!

Q1. Customer Purchase Patterns -
You have two tables, Customers and Purchases: CREATE TABLE Customers ( customer_id INT PRIMARY KEY, customer_name VARCHAR(255) ); CREATE TABLE Purchases ( purchase_id INT PRIMARY KEY, customer_id INT, product_id INT, purchase_date DATE );
Assume necessary INSERT statements are already executed.
Write an SQL query to find the names of customers who have purchased more than 5 different products within the last month. Order the result by customer_name.

Q2. Call Log Analysis -
Suppose you have a CallLogs table: CREATE TABLE CallLogs ( log_id INT PRIMARY KEY, caller_id INT, receiver_id INT, call_start_time TIMESTAMP, call_end_time TIMESTAMP );
Assume necessary INSERT statements are already executed.
Write a query to find the average call duration per user. Include only users who have made more than 10 calls in total. Order the result by average duration descending.

Q3. Employee Project Allocation - Consider two tables, Employees and Projects:
CREATE TABLE Employees ( employee_id INT PRIMARY KEY, employee_name VARCHAR(255), department VARCHAR(255) ); CREATE TABLE Projects ( project_id INT PRIMARY KEY, lead_employee_id INT, project_name VARCHAR(255), start_date DATE, end_date DATE );
Assume necessary INSERT statements are already executed.
The goal is to write an SQL query to find the names of employees who have led more than 3 projects in the last year. The result should be ordered by the number of projects led.
2