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What chemical bonds are considered weak? Covalent and ionic bonds are both typically considered strong bonds. However, more temporary and weak bonds can also form between atoms or molecules. 2️⃣ types of weak bonds are: 📍Hydrogen bond ⬆️, an intermolecular…
What are some hydrogen bonding examples and applications?
I. Some examples of hydrogen bonding are as follows.
☑️ Ammonia
The hydrogen bonds in ammonia (NH3) are formed between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms. Nitrogen is a highly electronegative atom that is linked to hydrogen atoms in order to make hydrogen bonds.
☑️ Hydrogen Fluoride
❗️ Fluorine is an element that has the highest value of electronegativity, and it forms the strongest hydrogen bond.
☑️ Alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds. It contains at least one -OH group. When any molecule containing the hydrogen atom is connected to either oxygen or nitrogen directly, it usually has the tendency to form hydrogen bonding.
☑️ Carboxylic Acid
Hydrogen bonding can occur in a pure carboxylic acid in between two molecules of acid in order to produce a dimer. The hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acid doubles the size of the molecule.
II. Some of the applications and effects of hydrogen bonds are given below.
🟢 Hydrogen Bonds in Plants
Water has the property to stick to itself (cohesion) and also with other molecules (adhesion). When water droplets fall on a leaf, the hydrogen bonds present between the molecules of water are more substantial than the intermolecular forces of adhesion between the water molecules and the leaf. The high surface tension of water is explained by this property.
⚪️ Hydrogen Bonds in Proteins
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for different types of proteins such as secondary proteins, tertiary proteins, and quaternary proteins and as well as for the structure of the nucleic acids.
🧬 Hydrogen Bonds in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
The double-helix model of DNA consists of two intertwined strands held together by a base pair. The hydrogen bonding present between the bases on adjacent strands is responsible for this. Because of different structure bases, adenine (A) always forms hydrogen bonds with thymine (T). Guanine (G) always forms hydrogen bonds with cytosine (C) in contrast.
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I. Some examples of hydrogen bonding are as follows.
☑️ Ammonia
The hydrogen bonds in ammonia (NH3) are formed between nitrogen and hydrogen atoms. Nitrogen is a highly electronegative atom that is linked to hydrogen atoms in order to make hydrogen bonds.
☑️ Hydrogen Fluoride
❗️ Fluorine is an element that has the highest value of electronegativity, and it forms the strongest hydrogen bond.
☑️ Alcohols
Alcohols are organic compounds. It contains at least one -OH group. When any molecule containing the hydrogen atom is connected to either oxygen or nitrogen directly, it usually has the tendency to form hydrogen bonding.
☑️ Carboxylic Acid
Hydrogen bonding can occur in a pure carboxylic acid in between two molecules of acid in order to produce a dimer. The hydrogen bonding in carboxylic acid doubles the size of the molecule.
II. Some of the applications and effects of hydrogen bonds are given below.
🟢 Hydrogen Bonds in Plants
Water has the property to stick to itself (cohesion) and also with other molecules (adhesion). When water droplets fall on a leaf, the hydrogen bonds present between the molecules of water are more substantial than the intermolecular forces of adhesion between the water molecules and the leaf. The high surface tension of water is explained by this property.
⚪️ Hydrogen Bonds in Proteins
Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for different types of proteins such as secondary proteins, tertiary proteins, and quaternary proteins and as well as for the structure of the nucleic acids.
🧬 Hydrogen Bonds in DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
The double-helix model of DNA consists of two intertwined strands held together by a base pair. The hydrogen bonding present between the bases on adjacent strands is responsible for this. Because of different structure bases, adenine (A) always forms hydrogen bonds with thymine (T). Guanine (G) always forms hydrogen bonds with cytosine (C) in contrast.
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How does a bird pee?
Birds convert nitrogen to uric acid, this is metabolically more costly but saves water and weight, as it is less toxic and doesn't need to be diluted so much. Birds therefore don't have a urethra, and don't pee – all waste leaves via…
Birds convert nitrogen to uric acid, this is metabolically more costly but saves water and weight, as it is less toxic and doesn't need to be diluted so much. Birds therefore don't have a urethra, and don't pee – all waste leaves via…
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Why does paper tear more easily when it's wet?
📍The answer comes down to the paper's chemical structure.
📍At the heart of it, paper is just cellulose fibers — natural polymer molecules from wood — woven around each other to form a sheet. Within a normal sheet of paper, these fibers are interlocked with each other through little hook-like irregularities on the individual strands of cellulose and also bonded between each other by hydrogen bonds.
📍When you tear a piece of dry paper, you just need to overcome all the intermolecular forces, the friction, and the fiber entanglements.
📍On a chemical level, the water disrupts the vital hydrogen bonds. Because water contains oxygen-hydrogen bond, it begins to form its own hydrogen bonds with the cellulose, blocking the other fibers from binding. With fewer interactions between the individual cellulose polymers, it becomes easier to separate the fibers, so less force is needed to tear the paper.
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📍The answer comes down to the paper's chemical structure.
📍At the heart of it, paper is just cellulose fibers — natural polymer molecules from wood — woven around each other to form a sheet. Within a normal sheet of paper, these fibers are interlocked with each other through little hook-like irregularities on the individual strands of cellulose and also bonded between each other by hydrogen bonds.
📍When you tear a piece of dry paper, you just need to overcome all the intermolecular forces, the friction, and the fiber entanglements.
📍On a chemical level, the water disrupts the vital hydrogen bonds. Because water contains oxygen-hydrogen bond, it begins to form its own hydrogen bonds with the cellulose, blocking the other fibers from binding. With fewer interactions between the individual cellulose polymers, it becomes easier to separate the fibers, so less force is needed to tear the paper.
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What were the first currencies?
💰 When, where and why money originated is uncertain and complicated. Because ancient civilizations developed at different times and recorded their history with a range of different approaches, archaeologists and historians can only make best guesses.
🐚🌾💎 Both shell money (comprised of shells or beads) and commodity money (comprised of objects that have a practical use, like grain) appear to have made up early forms of currency all around the world, from the Indigenous tribes of America to the villages of Africa to the populations of Asia and the South Pacific islands. Other objects likely used as early forms of currency vary immensely, from bricks of tea and livestock to gems and metal fragments.
ℹ️For example, shells ⬆️ were used as currency in ancient China and, about 5,000 years ago, Mesopotamians developed a banking system where people could "deposit" grains, livestock and other valuables for safekeeping or trade.
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💰 When, where and why money originated is uncertain and complicated. Because ancient civilizations developed at different times and recorded their history with a range of different approaches, archaeologists and historians can only make best guesses.
🐚🌾💎 Both shell money (comprised of shells or beads) and commodity money (comprised of objects that have a practical use, like grain) appear to have made up early forms of currency all around the world, from the Indigenous tribes of America to the villages of Africa to the populations of Asia and the South Pacific islands. Other objects likely used as early forms of currency vary immensely, from bricks of tea and livestock to gems and metal fragments.
ℹ️For example, shells ⬆️ were used as currency in ancient China and, about 5,000 years ago, Mesopotamians developed a banking system where people could "deposit" grains, livestock and other valuables for safekeeping or trade.
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What were the first coins?
The oldest known uses of coins as currency can be traced back to many archaic civilizations.
🪙 The Lydian stater ⬆️ is often considered the first minted — or state-produced — coin, issued by King Alyattes in the 7th century B.C. in a Greek kingdom of Lydia, located in modern-day Turkey.
These Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring gold and silver alloy, and were supposed to conform to a specific standard of weight.
They weren’t very uniform compared to modern coins. Minted in the Lydian capital of Sardis, the coins generally featured a lion (known as the Lydian Lion) and bull facing each other.
🪙 Even before the Lydian stater, coins could be minted in ancient China.
According to scientists, clay molds ⬆️, discovered in a bronze foundry at Guanzhuang, in China’s Henan Province, were likely used as a mint for making standardized coins around 640 B.C. - the approximate birth year of Lydia’s King Alyattes.
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The oldest known uses of coins as currency can be traced back to many archaic civilizations.
🪙 The Lydian stater ⬆️ is often considered the first minted — or state-produced — coin, issued by King Alyattes in the 7th century B.C. in a Greek kingdom of Lydia, located in modern-day Turkey.
These Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring gold and silver alloy, and were supposed to conform to a specific standard of weight.
They weren’t very uniform compared to modern coins. Minted in the Lydian capital of Sardis, the coins generally featured a lion (known as the Lydian Lion) and bull facing each other.
🪙 Even before the Lydian stater, coins could be minted in ancient China.
According to scientists, clay molds ⬆️, discovered in a bronze foundry at Guanzhuang, in China’s Henan Province, were likely used as a mint for making standardized coins around 640 B.C. - the approximate birth year of Lydia’s King Alyattes.
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How many pets are in the world?
✍️According to different sources, there are over 1 billion pets in the world.
🇺🇸🇨🇳🇪🇺In the USA, China and the EU alone, there are more than 500 mln 🐱 and 🐶.
Besides cats and dogs, the world pet population also includes animals like reptiles, fish, birds, rabbits, livestock, horses, hamsters, guinea pigs, mice, ferrets, iguanas, snakes, etc.
🐹After dogs and cats, hamsters are popular pets.
🇧🇷🥇Brazil ranks first in having the most small 🐶 per capita on the globe. In terms of exotic pets, it has the most unique number of animal pet species in the world.
🇷🇺🏆59% of Russian households have pet cats, making it the country with the highest overall share of cat owners.
🇬🇧🐢🐍🐊The highest pet reptile concentration - 1.45 mln reptiles - is in the United Kingdom.
🇮🇹🥇Italy takes first place in ornamental pet 🦜 in the world with 12.88 mln in households.
🇹🇷🥈Turkey takes second place with 11.2 mln ornamental birds in households.
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✍️According to different sources, there are over 1 billion pets in the world.
🇺🇸🇨🇳🇪🇺In the USA, China and the EU alone, there are more than 500 mln 🐱 and 🐶.
Besides cats and dogs, the world pet population also includes animals like reptiles, fish, birds, rabbits, livestock, horses, hamsters, guinea pigs, mice, ferrets, iguanas, snakes, etc.
🐹After dogs and cats, hamsters are popular pets.
🇧🇷🥇Brazil ranks first in having the most small 🐶 per capita on the globe. In terms of exotic pets, it has the most unique number of animal pet species in the world.
🇷🇺🏆59% of Russian households have pet cats, making it the country with the highest overall share of cat owners.
🇬🇧🐢🐍🐊The highest pet reptile concentration - 1.45 mln reptiles - is in the United Kingdom.
🇮🇹🥇Italy takes first place in ornamental pet 🦜 in the world with 12.88 mln in households.
🇹🇷🥈Turkey takes second place with 11.2 mln ornamental birds in households.
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How does the ‘Spanish Dancer Galaxy’ look like?
🔭🌀This vibrant and dynamic-looking image ⬆️, recently released by the ESA, features the spiral galaxy NGC 1566, which is sometimes informally referred to as the ‘Spanish Dancer Galaxy’.
💃🏻The galaxy owes its nickname to the vivid and dramatic swirling lines of its spiral arms, which could evoke the shapes and colours of a dancer’s moving form.
🌌NGC 1566 lies around 60 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Dorado, and is also a member of the Dorado galaxy group.
ℹ️In spite of more sophisticated observation techniques, it is rather challenging to pin down members of groups such as the Dorado group. When working out members of a galaxy group, astronomers are not necessarily equipped with the knowledge of the size of the individual galaxies, and so have to work out whether galaxies really are relatively close together in space, or whether some of them are actually much closer or much further away.
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🔭🌀This vibrant and dynamic-looking image ⬆️, recently released by the ESA, features the spiral galaxy NGC 1566, which is sometimes informally referred to as the ‘Spanish Dancer Galaxy’.
💃🏻The galaxy owes its nickname to the vivid and dramatic swirling lines of its spiral arms, which could evoke the shapes and colours of a dancer’s moving form.
🌌NGC 1566 lies around 60 million light-years from Earth in the constellation Dorado, and is also a member of the Dorado galaxy group.
ℹ️In spite of more sophisticated observation techniques, it is rather challenging to pin down members of groups such as the Dorado group. When working out members of a galaxy group, astronomers are not necessarily equipped with the knowledge of the size of the individual galaxies, and so have to work out whether galaxies really are relatively close together in space, or whether some of them are actually much closer or much further away.
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How does feeling lonely relate to spending time alone?
ℹ️ Loneliness - the subjective experience of social isolation - is a common experience that can become an enduring feature of everyday life.
Researchers have discerned the nuanced relationship between feeling lonely and actually being alone. The study involved over 400 participants with archival data collected in a series of studies completed over the last 20 years.
Key facts:
✔️ Loneliness becomes pronounced when individuals spend more than three-quarters of their time alone.
✔️ In older adults (above 67 years), the correlation between loneliness and time spent alone is particularly strong, with a 25% overlap.
✔️ In younger people, aloneness and loneliness are just two different things. Young persons may feel lonely in a crowd, or they may not feel lonely when they are by themselves.
To better quantify social behavior, the research team is developing a smartwatch app akin to fitness trackers.
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ℹ️ Loneliness - the subjective experience of social isolation - is a common experience that can become an enduring feature of everyday life.
Researchers have discerned the nuanced relationship between feeling lonely and actually being alone. The study involved over 400 participants with archival data collected in a series of studies completed over the last 20 years.
Key facts:
✔️ Loneliness becomes pronounced when individuals spend more than three-quarters of their time alone.
✔️ In older adults (above 67 years), the correlation between loneliness and time spent alone is particularly strong, with a 25% overlap.
✔️ In younger people, aloneness and loneliness are just two different things. Young persons may feel lonely in a crowd, or they may not feel lonely when they are by themselves.
To better quantify social behavior, the research team is developing a smartwatch app akin to fitness trackers.
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What is the International System of Units (SI)?
✍️ The International System of Units is a global standard for expressing the magnitudes or quantities of important natural phenomena.
📌 Also referred to as the Metric system, the System of Units is commonly abbreviated as SI, which comes from the original French name, Système international d'unités.
📌 The SI standard builds on an earlier system of measurement called the meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system.
📌 The Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM) ⬆️ is responsible for promoting and describing the SI standard. Known as the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in English, the organization was established in 1875 and operates under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).
ℹ️ The International Treaty of the Meter was signed in Paris on May 20, 1875 by seventeen countries and is now celebrated around the globe as World Metrology Day.
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✍️ The International System of Units is a global standard for expressing the magnitudes or quantities of important natural phenomena.
📌 Also referred to as the Metric system, the System of Units is commonly abbreviated as SI, which comes from the original French name, Système international d'unités.
📌 The SI standard builds on an earlier system of measurement called the meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system.
📌 The Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM) ⬆️ is responsible for promoting and describing the SI standard. Known as the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in English, the organization was established in 1875 and operates under the supervision of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).
ℹ️ The International Treaty of the Meter was signed in Paris on May 20, 1875 by seventeen countries and is now celebrated around the globe as World Metrology Day.
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What is at the heart of the SI standard?
The SI is defined in terms of a set of 7️⃣ defining constants:
1️⃣the caesium hyperfine frequency
2️⃣the speed of light in vacuum
3️⃣the Planck constant
4️⃣the elementary charge
5️⃣the Boltzmann constant
6️⃣the Avogadro constant
7️⃣the luminous efficacy of a defined visible radiation
The complete system of units can be derived from the fixed values of these defining constants, expressed in the units of the SI.
The 7️⃣ base units are:
1️⃣Second (s), unit of time
2️⃣Meter (m), unit of length
3️⃣Kilogram (kg), unit of mass
4️⃣Ampere (A), unit of electric current
5️⃣Kelvin (K), unit of thermodynamic temperature
6️⃣Mole (mol), unit of an amount of substance
7️⃣Candela (cd), unit of luminous intensity
The SI standard also includes units that are derived from the base units and are defined as products of powers of the base units. For example, one derived unit is the newton, which can be expressed in terms of base units as 1 kg m/s2.
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The SI is defined in terms of a set of 7️⃣ defining constants:
1️⃣the caesium hyperfine frequency
2️⃣the speed of light in vacuum
3️⃣the Planck constant
4️⃣the elementary charge
5️⃣the Boltzmann constant
6️⃣the Avogadro constant
7️⃣the luminous efficacy of a defined visible radiation
The complete system of units can be derived from the fixed values of these defining constants, expressed in the units of the SI.
The 7️⃣ base units are:
1️⃣Second (s), unit of time
2️⃣Meter (m), unit of length
3️⃣Kilogram (kg), unit of mass
4️⃣Ampere (A), unit of electric current
5️⃣Kelvin (K), unit of thermodynamic temperature
6️⃣Mole (mol), unit of an amount of substance
7️⃣Candela (cd), unit of luminous intensity
The SI standard also includes units that are derived from the base units and are defined as products of powers of the base units. For example, one derived unit is the newton, which can be expressed in terms of base units as 1 kg m/s2.
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What tells us how much heat the object has?
🌡Temperature tells us the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.
🌡It is a measurable physical property like other measurable physical properties such as velocity, mass, and density.
🔬At a microscopic level, temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system.
🌡Temperature is typically seen in units of degrees Celsius or °C (in some countries the Fahrenheit scale is used).
🌡Celsius is the standard unit of temperature in the metric system of units. Celsius is split up into degrees, with one degree being 1/100 of the temperature difference between the boiling and freezing points of water.
🌡Fahrenheit is equal to 9/5 degrees Celsius.
🌡Scientists use the Kelvin scale, which doesn’t measure temperature in degrees. Zero Kelvin is ‘absolute zero’, the coldest temperature and lowest energy level equal to about -273 degrees °C.
🌡A thermometer is a device used for measuring temperature.
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🌡Temperature tells us the degree of hotness or coldness of an object.
🌡It is a measurable physical property like other measurable physical properties such as velocity, mass, and density.
🔬At a microscopic level, temperature describes the average kinetic energy of molecules within a material or system.
🌡Temperature is typically seen in units of degrees Celsius or °C (in some countries the Fahrenheit scale is used).
🌡Celsius is the standard unit of temperature in the metric system of units. Celsius is split up into degrees, with one degree being 1/100 of the temperature difference between the boiling and freezing points of water.
🌡Fahrenheit is equal to 9/5 degrees Celsius.
🌡Scientists use the Kelvin scale, which doesn’t measure temperature in degrees. Zero Kelvin is ‘absolute zero’, the coldest temperature and lowest energy level equal to about -273 degrees °C.
🌡A thermometer is a device used for measuring temperature.
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Why temperature anomalies are so important?
📌A temperature anomaly is the difference from an average, or baseline, temperature.
📌The baseline temperature is typically computed by averaging 30 or more years of temperature data.
📌Anomalies are measured by the number of degrees that the temperature varies from the average and can be:
➕positive (the observed temperature is warmer than the baseline)
and
➖negative (the observed temperature is cooler than the baseline)
📌The anomalies are due to land-ocean-atmosphere processes that dynamically determine the weather and climate.
📌Anomalies are used to measure global surface temperature instead of absolute temperature because:
✔️absolute estimates are challenging to obtain and are uncertain
✔️anomalies describe how climate is changing over larger areas and over time more clearly.
❗️The world has been showing a frightening abundance of positive anomalies in the past decade, which means the world is getting warmer.
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📌A temperature anomaly is the difference from an average, or baseline, temperature.
📌The baseline temperature is typically computed by averaging 30 or more years of temperature data.
📌Anomalies are measured by the number of degrees that the temperature varies from the average and can be:
➕positive (the observed temperature is warmer than the baseline)
and
➖negative (the observed temperature is cooler than the baseline)
📌The anomalies are due to land-ocean-atmosphere processes that dynamically determine the weather and climate.
📌Anomalies are used to measure global surface temperature instead of absolute temperature because:
✔️absolute estimates are challenging to obtain and are uncertain
✔️anomalies describe how climate is changing over larger areas and over time more clearly.
❗️The world has been showing a frightening abundance of positive anomalies in the past decade, which means the world is getting warmer.
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What are some interesting temperature highlights of October 2023?
According to climatologists,
🌡 🗓 October 2023 was the warmest October on record globally, with an average surface air temperature of 15.30°C, 0.85°C above the 1991-2020 average for October and 0.40°C above the previous warmest October, in 2019.
🌡🌏 The global temperature anomaly for October 2023 was the second highest across all months in the ERA5 dataset, behind September 2023.
🌡🌊 The average sea surface temperature for October over 60°S–60°N was 20.79°C, the highest on record for October.
🌡 The month as a whole was 1.7°C warmer than an estimate of the October average for 1850-1900, the designated pre-industrial reference period.
ℹ️ ERA5 is the latest climate reanalysis produced by European researchers. All the reported findings are based on computer-generated analyses, using billions of measurements from satellites, ships, aircraft and weather stations around the world.
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According to climatologists,
🌡 🗓 October 2023 was the warmest October on record globally, with an average surface air temperature of 15.30°C, 0.85°C above the 1991-2020 average for October and 0.40°C above the previous warmest October, in 2019.
🌡🌏 The global temperature anomaly for October 2023 was the second highest across all months in the ERA5 dataset, behind September 2023.
🌡🌊 The average sea surface temperature for October over 60°S–60°N was 20.79°C, the highest on record for October.
🌡 The month as a whole was 1.7°C warmer than an estimate of the October average for 1850-1900, the designated pre-industrial reference period.
ℹ️ ERA5 is the latest climate reanalysis produced by European researchers. All the reported findings are based on computer-generated analyses, using billions of measurements from satellites, ships, aircraft and weather stations around the world.
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How many Types of Symmetry in Biology?
✍️ Symmetry in biology refers to the correspondence of body parts, in size, shape, and relative position, on opposite sides of a dividing line or distributed around a central point or axis.
There are 3️⃣ main types of symmetry in animals ⬆️
✅ Spherical, rare in animals and found mainly in Protozoa (e.g., Volvox, Heliozoa, and Radiolaria) and in eggs and early embryos of some animals.
✅ Radial, found in some sponges (Sycon), Coelenterates (Hydra, jellyfish), echinoderms (e.g.,starfish).
✅ Bilateral, found in many invertebrates, e.g., annelids arthropods, etc., and all vertebrates. It is strongly associated with cephalization.
Scientists also distinguish
✔️ Biradial Symmetry, found in organisms with morphological features (internal or external) of both bilateral and radial symmetry. e.g., sea anemones.
☘️🌱🌸🌻 Plants exhibit often both radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry, which has a lot to do with pollination strategy.
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✍️ Symmetry in biology refers to the correspondence of body parts, in size, shape, and relative position, on opposite sides of a dividing line or distributed around a central point or axis.
There are 3️⃣ main types of symmetry in animals ⬆️
✅ Spherical, rare in animals and found mainly in Protozoa (e.g., Volvox, Heliozoa, and Radiolaria) and in eggs and early embryos of some animals.
✅ Radial, found in some sponges (Sycon), Coelenterates (Hydra, jellyfish), echinoderms (e.g.,starfish).
✅ Bilateral, found in many invertebrates, e.g., annelids arthropods, etc., and all vertebrates. It is strongly associated with cephalization.
Scientists also distinguish
✔️ Biradial Symmetry, found in organisms with morphological features (internal or external) of both bilateral and radial symmetry. e.g., sea anemones.
☘️🌱🌸🌻 Plants exhibit often both radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry, which has a lot to do with pollination strategy.
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Where is the head on a starfish?
For centuries, naturalists have puzzled over what might constitute the head of a sea star, commonly called a "starfish."
Sea stars begin life as larvae with a bilateral body plan, but instead of displaying bilateral symmetry, adult sea stars—and related echinoderms, such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers—have a five-fold axis of symmetry without a clear head or tail ⬆️
In a new study, researchers used a variety of high-tech molecular and genomic techniques to understand where different genes were expressed during the development and growth of sea stars ⬆️
The “head” of a starfish, the researchers found, is not in any one place. Instead, the headlike regions are distributed with some in the center of the sea star as well as in the center of each limb of its body. No part of the sea star ectoderm expresses a “trunk” genetic patterning program, suggesting that sea stars are mostly headlike.
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For centuries, naturalists have puzzled over what might constitute the head of a sea star, commonly called a "starfish."
Sea stars begin life as larvae with a bilateral body plan, but instead of displaying bilateral symmetry, adult sea stars—and related echinoderms, such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers—have a five-fold axis of symmetry without a clear head or tail ⬆️
In a new study, researchers used a variety of high-tech molecular and genomic techniques to understand where different genes were expressed during the development and growth of sea stars ⬆️
The “head” of a starfish, the researchers found, is not in any one place. Instead, the headlike regions are distributed with some in the center of the sea star as well as in the center of each limb of its body. No part of the sea star ectoderm expresses a “trunk” genetic patterning program, suggesting that sea stars are mostly headlike.
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What is the brain’s surprising reaction to “all-nighters”?
Most people who have pulled an all-nighter are familiar with that “tired and wired” feeling. Although the body is physically exhausted, the brain feels slap-happy, loopy and almost giddy.
The exact mechanisms in the brain that lead to these effects have remained poorly understood.
In a new study, researchers induced mild, acute sleep deprivation in mice and then examined their behaviors and brain activity. Not only did dopamine release increase during the acute sleep loss period, synaptic plasticity also was enhanced - literally rewiring the brain to maintain the bubbly mood for the next few days.
While researchers do not fully understand why acute sleep deprivation is somehow activating to an organism, they suspect evolution is at play.
This discovery provides insights into the mechanisms of fast-acting antidepressants and may guide future drug development.
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Most people who have pulled an all-nighter are familiar with that “tired and wired” feeling. Although the body is physically exhausted, the brain feels slap-happy, loopy and almost giddy.
The exact mechanisms in the brain that lead to these effects have remained poorly understood.
In a new study, researchers induced mild, acute sleep deprivation in mice and then examined their behaviors and brain activity. Not only did dopamine release increase during the acute sleep loss period, synaptic plasticity also was enhanced - literally rewiring the brain to maintain the bubbly mood for the next few days.
While researchers do not fully understand why acute sleep deprivation is somehow activating to an organism, they suspect evolution is at play.
This discovery provides insights into the mechanisms of fast-acting antidepressants and may guide future drug development.
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What gives unique sensory properties to animals?
Cryptochromes (CRYs) are a structurally conserved but functionally diverse family of proteins that can confer unique sensory properties to organisms.
They are:
▫️found in a variety of organisms
▫️often involved in light-controlled biological processes
▫️responsible for circadian rhythms.
🪱E.g., the marine bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii ⬆️, employs a special Cry protein designated L-Cry to distinguish between sunlight and moonlight as well as between different moon phases. This is essential for the worms to synchronize their reproduction to the full moon phase via an inner monthly calendar, also called circalunar clock.
🐤In migratory birds, researchers tried to learn more about an unusual eye protein called CRY4, which is part of a class of cryptochromes. Scientists found that birds have evolved a mechanism that enhances their ability to respond to light, which can enable them to sense and respond to magnetic fields ⬆️.
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Cryptochromes (CRYs) are a structurally conserved but functionally diverse family of proteins that can confer unique sensory properties to organisms.
They are:
▫️found in a variety of organisms
▫️often involved in light-controlled biological processes
▫️responsible for circadian rhythms.
🪱E.g., the marine bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii ⬆️, employs a special Cry protein designated L-Cry to distinguish between sunlight and moonlight as well as between different moon phases. This is essential for the worms to synchronize their reproduction to the full moon phase via an inner monthly calendar, also called circalunar clock.
🐤In migratory birds, researchers tried to learn more about an unusual eye protein called CRY4, which is part of a class of cryptochromes. Scientists found that birds have evolved a mechanism that enhances their ability to respond to light, which can enable them to sense and respond to magnetic fields ⬆️.
Subscribe- t.me/askmenow
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Can artificial materials become magnetic?
🧲The most commonly known forms of magnetism are ferromagnetism (the spins of all the electrons in a material point in the same direction) and its weaker version – paramagnetism (the electron spins point in random directions).
🧲Exploring properties of moiré materials (experimental materials made by stacking two-dimensional sheets of molybdenum diselenide and tungsten disulfide with a lattice structure containing electrons) scientists discovered a new form of magnetism.
🧲Initially the material exhibited paramagnetism, but as researchers added more electrons to the lattice, it showed a shift, becoming ferromagnetic.
❗️The existence of this alternate “kinetic magnetism” has been theoretically predicted for decades but not previously observed in solid materials.
🌡For this experiment, the material had to be cooled down to a fraction above absolute zero, and the phenomenon will be investigated more closely at higher temperatures.
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🧲The most commonly known forms of magnetism are ferromagnetism (the spins of all the electrons in a material point in the same direction) and its weaker version – paramagnetism (the electron spins point in random directions).
🧲Exploring properties of moiré materials (experimental materials made by stacking two-dimensional sheets of molybdenum diselenide and tungsten disulfide with a lattice structure containing electrons) scientists discovered a new form of magnetism.
🧲Initially the material exhibited paramagnetism, but as researchers added more electrons to the lattice, it showed a shift, becoming ferromagnetic.
❗️The existence of this alternate “kinetic magnetism” has been theoretically predicted for decades but not previously observed in solid materials.
🌡For this experiment, the material had to be cooled down to a fraction above absolute zero, and the phenomenon will be investigated more closely at higher temperatures.
Subscribe- t.me/askmenow
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