#pharmaceutical _preparations of cortisol_
they differ in ... 1⃣pharmacokinetics (absorption factor half-life, volume of distribution- clearance) 2⃣pharmacodynamics (for the capacity of mineralocorticoid activity- retention of sodium (Na+) and water -renal physiology).
#Why......❗️
↑hyper cortisolism .
Or
↓hypo cortisolism .
🔻🔻🔻🔻
#Resulte = S.E

#also they permeate the intestines easily.
# note
⭕️ also by other methods such as *topically *on skin more than 90% of them bind different plasma proteins.
⤵️⤵️⤵️⤵️⤵️⤵️

💢Topical hydrocortisone: ▪️creams .
▪️ointments .
# usually _content strengths ranging from hydrocortison_(0.05%-2.5%)

#الكورتيزونات _الموضعيه
تعد واحداً من المستحضرات التي تتميز بقوتها _
حيث تستخدم لعلاج _الامراض الجلديه والتناسليه .
بالاضافه الى قدرته_ على علاج الامراض الجلديه التي تتعلق بالجهاز المناعي لكن هناك ..
◀️ملاحظات هامة :
1) يفضل أن لاتستخدم أكثر من 21 يومأ اذا كان الكورتيزون الموجود فيها بتركيز القوه العاليه .
2) عندما يتطلب الامر من الممكن أن تطول مده ألاستخدام عن شهرين أذا كان الكورتيزون الموجود فيها مابين القوه العاليه والضعيفه .
3) ينصح بأن لا تضع أكثر من مرتين يومياً..

د.ص/ #أحمد _الجرادي🏽

#قناة_الصيدلة_السريرية
‏https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/AAAAAFJLMrpbqGhRgvlQeg

#جروب_الصيدلة_السريرية

‏https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw6Ku2s--H4ZKGqWjQ

#مدير_البرنامج
#البروف_محمود_البريهي
#أستاذ مشارك صيدلانيات_جامعة_صنعاء

#برنامج تطوير_مهنةالصيدلة

‏https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

💡Newer medications for heart failure 💡

💊ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR-NEPRILYSIN INHIBITOR 💊

مثبطات انزيم ال Neprilysine ⬅ الانزيم المحطم للببتيدات المدرة للماء والصوديوم
(Natriuretic Peptides)
وقافلات مستقبلات الانجيوتنسن 2 (ARBs )

⤵ ⤵ ⤵ ⤵ ⤵

NP's hormones are classified to :
↪ ANP - BNP - CNP
▶The NP's hormones are responsible for both natriuresis and diuresis through the following processes :
1⃣ Antagonism of RAAS.
2⃣ Blocking the sympathetic outflow.
3⃣ Antagonism of Endothelin 1.
4⃣ Inhibit vasopressin secretion.

▶ So the net effect is peripheral & coronary vasodilation ➡ ⬇ preload & afterload.

▶ NP's are broken
down by the neutral endopeptidase ⤵ (neprilysin)
which also degrades angiotensin II.

➡ Sacubitril/valsartan (Entresto)® has shown improved outcomes with few adverse effects in patients with HFrEF.

▶ Sacubitril/valsartan is an angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor (ARNI), a unique
combination with an ARB (valsartan) and a neprilysin inhibitor (sacubitril).

▶ Because neprilysin also breakdowns angiotensin II, a neprilysin inhibitor should be given in combination with a RAAS inhibitor.

▶ Sacubitril/valsartan provides a dual mechanism of action in HF by inhibiting the RAAS and augmenting several endogenous NPs. This mechanism has not been addressed by other HFtherapies.

▶The drug was approved by FDA in 2015 for NYHA class I–IV.

▶ Post marketing surveillance will determine the safety of sacubitril/valsartan. A cost–benefit analysis would also be of use.

▶ The 2016 ACC/AHA/HFSA update on 2013 HF guidelines recommends an ARNI in patients with chronic symptomatic HFrEF (NYHA class II or III) who tolerate an
ACE inhibitor or ARB, in order to reduce morbidity and mortality.

▶ The guidelines also state that ARNI should not be combined with ACE inhibitors and a 36-hour washout period is
required between these two therapies to minimize the risk of angioedema.
▪▪▪▪▪▪▪▪
🔹NP's = Natriuretic Peptides.
🔹ARNI = Angiotensin Receptor Neprilysine inhibitors.
🔹RAAS = Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone System.
🔹EFrHF = Ejection Fruction reduced heart Failure(systolic HF).
🔹ACC = American College of Cardiology.
🔹AHA = American Heart Association.
🔹 HFSA = Heart Failure Society of America.
🔹NYHA = NewYork Heart Association.

▪▪▪▪
🌹Reference/
📖 Caroline S. Zeind , Applied theraputics, The clinical use of drugs, Ed 11.
📖 Joseph.T.DiPiro, Pharmacotherapy, A Pathophysiological approach, Ed 10.

💊 💊 💊 💊 💊 💊

بقلم الصيدلانية /
نور نجيب

30 - 10 - 2018

مجال الصيدلة السريرية

https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw6Ku2s--H4ZKGqWjQ

#مدير البرنامج
#البروف_محمود البريهي
#أستاذ مشارك الصيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة جامعة صنعاء

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹New Drug Application:
The next step in getting a new drug product to market is the New Drug Application (NDA) process. The data collected during the
animal studies and clinical trials of the IND process are incorporated
into the NDA. The purpose of the NDA process is to determine the safety and effectiveness of the drug product for the intended use; to determine if the benefits of the drug product outweigh the risks associated with the drug product; to determine if the proposed labeling is appropriate; and to determine if the manufacturing methods are sufficient to insure the drug’s identity, strength, quality, and purity. If the NDA is approved then the drug product may be marketed to the public. Postmarketing surveillance or Phase 4 trials involve safety monitoring and ongoing technical support of a drug. Postmarketing safety monitoring is designed to detect any rare or long-term adverse effects over a much larger patient population
and greater period of time than was possible during the initial clinical trials. Such adverse effects detected by Phase 4 trials may
result in the withdrawal or restriction of a drug—recent examples include cerivastatin (Baycol and Lipobay), troglitazone (Rezulin), and rofecoxib (Vioxx).
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏪ صيادلة المجتمع :
31/10/2018
✍أ.د/ محمود البريهي:

◀️ ممارسة صيدلة المجتمع تتطلب مهارات إدارية و تعليم مستمر و تطوير معلومات الكادر الصيدلاني.

◀️ تطوير صيدلة المجتمع يتطلب شروط و نظام تخزين الأدوية وفقا للمواصفات وصرف الأدوية و إلتزام بنظام الجودة في ممارسة صرف الأدوية

◀️ توثيق عمليات صرف الأدوية التي تتم في صيدلية المجتمع أمر ضروري واتباع أنظمة الجودة في ممارسة صرف الأدوية لضمان معايير جيدة في تقديم أفضل الخدمات من صيادلة المجتمع ل المرضى و هدف رئيسي التركيز على المريض

◀️ تطوير صيدلة المجتمع من خلال التركيز على خدمة المريض واتجاه الصيدلي نحو تحسين رعاية المرضى لتعزيز ممارسة الرعاية الصيدلانية وتكون في تواصل مستمر بين صيادلة المجتمع والمرضى لتحقيق أهداف الرعاية الصيدلانية للمجتمع

◀️ ممارسة صيدلة المجتمع يجب أن تكون بالتعاون مع فريق الرعاية الصحية من المهن الطبية ومع المؤسسات الصيدلانية والمستشفيات والهيئات والجهات المختصة في الإعداد والتوعية الصحية للمجتمع لضمان الرعاية الصحية المتكاملة للمريض بطرق سهلة وتعاون بين فريق الرعاية الصحية لخدمة المجتمع

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
مدير البرنامج
أ.د / محمود مهيوب البريهي
أستاذ مشارك الصيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة جامعة صنعاء

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

▶️Pharmacokinetic DDI :
Pharmacokinetics is defined as what the body does to a drug, or more formally, the movement of drugs through the body including the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). The pharmacokinetics of a drug are described in terms of drug concentration in the blood or plasma vs. time .The drug must achieve adequate concentration at the site of activity (cell receptor site) to exert a pharmacologic effect, which is dependent on ADME. Think of pharmacokinetics as the time course of the drug concentration from a
particular dosage regimen. Pharmacokinetics can tell us
how much of a drug to give and how often it must be given
to reach the target drug concentration that causes the desired pharmacological effect.
Drug interactions can occur
at any point in ADME.
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹Pharmaceutical Interactions:
▶Chemical DDI:
Pharmaceutical drug interactions can be divided in to chemical and physical reactions. An example of a chemical reaction is the incompatibility of potassium phosphate and calcium chloride in total parenteral nutrition preparations, also known as TPNs a hyperalimentation. The two drugs may interact to form calcium phosphate, which will result in a precipitate (“snow”) in the intravenous (IV) fluid bag. Persistent seizures (status epilepticus) is a life threatening condition that requires medication to stop the seizures as soon as possible. Two commonly used anticonvulsant drugs, phenytoin (Dilantin) and lorazepam (Ativan), become ineffective if mixed together in the same IV bag or syringe.

▶Physical DDI:
Physically altering a drug formulation such as by crushing a sustained-release tablet could result in the drug being released more quickly and/or in a larger amount. Alcohol or food given with some sustained release products may cause similar problems. Another example of a physical reaction includes the thyroid drug levothyroxine sticking to IV tubing and bags. One drug can alter the formulation of another drug, such as the combination of diazepam (Valium) with the emulsion propofol (Diprivan). Diazepam destabilizes the propofol emulsion, causing it to “oil out” and making it dangerous to administer intravenously. Environmental conditions can adversely affect drugs. Light can cause some drugs to degrade and become less effective. This is why medicine bottles are usually amber or opaque. Humidity can have a similar effect on drugs. Other environmental conditions can affect drug absorption. For example, heating pads can increase the release of the narcotic fentanyl from transdermal patches.
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹Pharmacodynamic DDI:

▶Pharmacodynamics is the term for the effect(s) that a drug has on the body. The pharmacodyamics of a drug are described in terms of pharmacological effect vs drug dose. Generally, as the dose or drug concentration increases,
the pharmacological effect increases proportionately. The
effect may be an intended therapeutic effect such as relieving pain, relaxing muscle, or killing bacteria. The effect
might also be an unintended side effect such as headache
with the use of nitroglycerin or discolored urine with the phenazoperidine (Pyridium). The effect could also be an adverse reaction such as birth defects with the acne drug isotretinoin (Accutane), rhabdomyolysis (muscle breakdown) with statins such as atorvastatins (Lipitor).Regardless of whether the pharmacological effect is intended or unintended, drugs work by interacting with receptors on the surface of a cell. The relationship between a receptor and drug is often compared with a lock and key. Cell receptor molecules bind with naturally occurring
substances (eg, hormones, neurotransmitters) or drugs. Receptors may be thought of as keyholes that provide access to the cell with the correctly fitting key. The “key” may be a naturally occurring substance in the body such as epinephrine (adrenaline), or a drug or any other substance that is foreign to the body, such as an herb. Many drugs work by mimicking chemicals that occur naturally in the body. For pharmacological effect, a drug must bind to a cell receptor site. A drug that binds with a receptor (i.e., fits into the keyhole) and causes it to act in the same way as a naturally occurring substance is called an agonist . Drugs that bind with a receptor to prevent it from interacting with naturally occurring substances blocking the receptor (i.e., jamming the lock)
are called antagonists Examples of drugs that are agonists and antagonists are adrenergic agonists and adrenergic antagonists. “Adrenergic” refers to the so called “fight-or-flight” system of the body. Adrenergic receptors bind with epinephrine (adrenaline). Adrenergic receptors are classified as alpha or beta depending on their function and are found in various parts of the body. If you were being chased by a lion, the adrenal glands, which sit on top of the kidneys, would release epinephrine. Epinephrine binds to adrenergic receptors causing the heart to pump more blood, the lungs to take in more oxygen, and the blood vessels to constrict, raising the blood pressure. More oxygen-filled blood gets to the brain and muscles, allowing quick thinking and faster movement hopefully avoiding lunch for the lion. Mimicking some of the effects of epinephrine can be useful for specific diseases or conditions. During an asthma attack, muscles around the airways contract, causing the bronchial (breathing) tubes to narrow. A beta-agonist, such as albuterol or salmeterol, can bind with adrenergic receptors in the lungs and relax the bronchial tubes, which improves breathing. Patients with high blood pressure or other conditions may take beta-antagonists, also called beta-blockers, to reduce blood pressure or heart rate. Beta-blockers, such as propranolol (Inderal) or metoprolol (Toprol), block the beta adrenergic receptors from binding with naturally occurring substances such as epinephrine, thereby lowering the blood pressure and heart rate. The combination of a beta-agonist with a beta-blocker could reduce the effects of both drugs by competing for the same cellular receptor.
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹Additive, Antagonistic, and Synergistic DDI :
The combined effects of drugs may result in additive, antagonistic, or synergistic DDIs.
▶Additive DDIs occur when the effect of two drugs results in a greater effect than the effect of each agent given alone (1+1=2). For example, alcohol plus sleep medicines cause increased (and sometimes dangerous) drowsiness, greater than the drowsiness caused by either alcohol or sleep medicine alone. Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation (stops them from sticking together to form a clot) and heparin prevents blood from clotting; the combination of an antiplatelet drug and an anticoagulant may increase the risk of bleeding. High blood pressure is often treated with two or more antihypertensives to gain better control over blood pressure. The combination of drugs often lowers blood pressure more effectively than increasing the dose of one medication.
▶Antagonistic DDIs occur when one drug reduces or eliminates the effect of another (1-1=0). This may occur at the receptor level, as with beta-blockers discussed above, or by other mechanisms. Antagonistic DDIs are the basis for antidotes in poisoning. For example, acetaminophen (Tylenol) overdoses may be treated with a drug called acetylcysteine (Mucomyst or Acetadote), which prevents the toxic effect on the liver by eliminating toxic metabolites (breakdown products) of acetaminophen. The narcotic antagonist naloxone (Narcan) is used for narcotic overdoses. Antagonistic drug interactions are often unwanted; for example, caffeine may reduce the effect of sleep aids.
Antihypertensive medication is likely to be less effective when taken with many herbal weight loss products. These products often contain the stimulant bitter orange (synephrine) and various forms of caffeine such as guarana, which can increase blood pressure.
▶Synergistic DDIs occur when the combined effect of two drugs exceeds the sum of the effects of each drug given alone (1+1=3). Antibiotics are often given together for a synergistic effect. For example, aminoglycosides such as gentamicin and penicillins such as ampicillin are often given for serious infections in hospitalized patients. Many pain medications use two or more analgesics (e.g., Percocet contains oxycodone and acetaminophen, Excedrin contains acetaminophen, aspirin) for greater pain relief than each individual component can provide.
An example of an unwanted synergistic drug interaction is the combination of nitrates (e.g., nitroglycerin, isosorbide).
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

💡Newer medication for heart failure💡
#د.ص / نور نجيب

💎 سبق وان تحدثت بمنشور سابق عن دواء
Sacubitril/valsartan (Entresto)®
عبارة عن :

Angiotensin neprilysin receptor inhibitor (ARNI)

حيث يعمل ال sacubitril  
على تثبيط انزيم ال Neprilysine المسئول عن تكسير الببتيدات المدرة للماء والصوديوم وتمت اضافة دواء ال Valsartan لتثبيط عمل الانجيوتنسن 2 الذي تم تنشيطه نتيجه تحطيم انزيم ال Neprilysine الذي نعرف أنه يكسرالانجيوتنسن2 .

💊 💊 💊

اليوم المنشور عن دواء يعمل عمل الببتيدات ال Natriuretic peptides ☺☺

(Natriuretic Peptides analogue )

 🔽 🔽 🔽 🔽

💉NESIRITIDE 💉
⏩BNP peptide is an endogenous neurohormone that is synthesized and released from myocardium in response to chamber wall stretch or increased filling pressures.

⏩Recombinant BNP, or nesiritide, is the newest compound developed for
AHF.

❇M.O.A:

#⃣ Nesiritide binds to guanylate cyclase receptors in vascular smooth muscle & endothelial cells, causing an ⬆in cGMP concentrations ➡
 vasodilation (venous and arterial) & natriuresis.

❇EFFECTS:

🔻Nesiritide antagonizes the effects of the RAAS and endothelin.

🔻Nesiritide reduces
➡PCWP (Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure)
➡right atrial pressure
➡ SVR(Systemic vascular resistance)

🔻It also increases SV and CO without affecting HR.

❇INDICATION

▶Nesiritide is indicated for patients with AHF exhibiting dyspnea at rest or with minimal activity. The recommended dose regimen is a bolus of 2 mcg/kg, followed by a continuous infusion for up to 24 hours of 0.01 mcg/kg/min.

▶SO The use of nesiritide is generally restricted to those patients with acute HF exacerbations who are hypervolemic and have a PCWP greater than 18 mm Hg.

▶Despite high doses of diuretics and IV NTG. In contrast to NTG, nesiritide has natriuretic properties that are additive to loop diuretics. 

▶Nesiritide has been shown to improve symptoms of dyspnea and fatigue.

▶In a randomized clinical trial, nesiritide was found to significantly decrease PCWP more than nitroglycerin and placebo over 3 hours.

❇ CONTRAINDICATION:

▶Nesiritide should be avoided in patients with systolic BP less than 90 mm Hg.

📝 NOTE:
*⃣ One potential disadvantage compared with other vasodilators is its longer half-life ⏩ If hypotension occurs, the effect can be prolonged (2 hours).

 ▪▪▪▪

🌹Reference/
📖 Caroline S. Zeind , Applied theraputics, The clinical use of drugs, Ed 11.

📖 Joseph.T.DiPiro, Pharmacotherapy, Pathophysiological approach, 10th Ed.

📖 Joseph.T.DiPiro, Pharmacotherapy, Principles & Practice 4th ed.

💊 💊 💊 💊 💊

بقلم الصيدلانية /
نور نجيب

2 - 11 - 2018

مجال الصيدلة السريرية

https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw6Ku2s--H4ZKGqWjQ

#مدير البرنامج
#البروف_محمود البريهي
#أستاذ مشارك الصيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة جامعة صنعاء

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

◀️◀️ برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة - PPDPROGRAM:
⬇️⬇️⬇️⬇️⬇️
⏪ قنوات برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة بالتليجرام الإشتراك عبر الروابط :

1- قناة برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
PHARMACY PROFESSION. DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

2- قناة الصيدلة الصناعية :
INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/INDPHARMA

3- قناة الممارسة الصيدلية الجيدة :
GOOD PHARMACY PRACTICE:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/GOODPP

4- قناة التسويق الدوائي:
DRUG MARKETING:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/DRDRMMM

5- قناة المراجع الصيدلانية والعلمية :
PHARMACY REFERENCES:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/alburyhi

6- قناة حركية الدواء السريرية :
CLINICALPHARMACOKINETICS:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/CLINICPHARMA

7- قناة الصيدلانيات:
PHARMACEUTICS:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/AAAAAEMEz1DH-RmtRXAh-A

8- قناة العقاقير :
PHARMACOGNOSY:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/AAAAAESDtdF_93BQku8ZdA

9- قناة الصيدلة السريرية:
CLINICAL PHARMACY:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/AAAAAFJLMrpbqGhRgvlQeg

10- قناة علم الأدوية :
PHARMACOLOGY :
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/AAAAAEPnl5FcMn1Zu83fwg

11- قناة التعليم الصيدلاني المستمر :
CONTINUOUS PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/AAAAAE7Zop3thSNV1pQyEw

12- قناة الكيمياء الدوائية :
MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/MEDCHEM

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
مدير البرنامج
أ.د/ محمود مهيوب البريهي
أستاذ مشارك صيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة جامعة صنعاء

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⬇️ برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
قنوات برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
برنامج متميز يعمل وفق تصميم وإشراف أكاديمي هدفه السامي تفعيل دور الصيادلة في مجالات العمل لمهنة الصيدلة والمساهمة في التأهيل ومهارات التدريب الصيدلاني.
1-قناة برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
PHARMACY PROFESSION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM:
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

👈🏼 الصيدلة :-
هي مهنتي و عزتي
والاعتزاز بها وتطويرها دليل ثقافتي.

⏪ مجموعات برنامج تطويرمهنة الصيدلة :
⬇️⬇️
الاشتراك عبر الرابط : طلاب وطالبات كليات الصيدلة البكالوريوس ومعاهد الدبلوم وخريجين كليات الصيدلة ومعاهد الدبلوم كل طلاب وطالبات الماجستير وكل صيدلاني أو صيدلانية مهتم بمجال علم الصيدلة أو ضمن فريق الرعاية الصحية .
⬇️⬇️
1- مجموعة الصيدلة الصناعية .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixBMwfOEM6XO8WPFlw
⬇️⬇️
2- مجموعة الصيدلة السريرية .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw6Ku2s--H4ZKGqWjQ
⬇️⬇️
3- مجموعة حركية الدواء السريرية.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixCuZNLCAssmZWNe4g
⬇️⬇️
4- مجموعة صيدلة المجتمع .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw_dC-I487GpR_tDsA
⬇️⬇️
5- مجموعة صيدلة المستشفيات.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixFKDEbFNYh7tgLuEQ
⬇️⬇️
6- مجموعة الإدارة العلاجية .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixDfeAtUH2wo-M1ztw
⬇️⬇️
7- مجموعة التسويق الدوائي والصيدلاني.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixDOWK3fBggOmipWpQ
⬇️⬇️
8 - مجموعة إدارة المؤسسات الصيدلانية والطبية .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw9U1pJOkb86yh-uVg
⬇️⬇️
9- مجموعة الصيدلة
الاقتصادية .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixEMwrvymhycKklWpA
⬇️⬇️
10- مجموعة الصيدلي
الأكاديمي.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw_IY7nVpBJHpGjPIQ
⬇️⬇️
11- مجموعة الأبحاث
الصيدلانية والعلمية.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixCwWu_jtfbJsjQkVQ
⬇️⬇️
12- مجموعة الرعاية
الصحية وخدمة المجتمع.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixFXMhs603psv0x8XQ
⬇️⬇️
13- مجموعة العقاقير
والنباتات الطبية والأعشاب .
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw3WXZk2vSh13pAeRg
⬇️⬇️
14- مجموعة التثقيف
الدوائي والصيدلاني.
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piwzD3oV5A-Ne1Uo6JA
⬇️⬇️

15- مجموعة أخلاقيات وقوانين وتشريعات مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw1vguOAOoM9rTjEPQ
⬇️⬇️
16- مجموعة الغذاء والدواء
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixBmPbddYibsYI9miQ
⬇️⬇️
17- مجموعة التيقظ الدوائي
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixHv5Q933TaiN6ky7Q
⬇️⬇️
18- مجموعة التعليم الصيدلاني المستمر
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56piw7eY89H07xrpueQtg

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
مدير البرنامج
ا.د/ محمود مهيوب البريهي
أستاذ مشارك - صيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة - جامعة صنعاء

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹Drug Absorption:
Absorption is the first process of pharmacokinetics.
In general, drugs require absorption to have a pharmacologic effect. Drugs given by mouth must be absorbed through the stomach and/or intestine to reach the blood to be delivered to the site of action. Likewise, drugs given
by intramuscular (IM) or subcutaneous (Sub-Q) injection or drugs administered nasally, sublingually (under the tongue), or by other nonoral routes must be absorbed from the administration site. Drugs given intravenously are given directly into the blood, bypassing absorption; thus, the onset of effect is almost immediate. Drugs given
Sub-Q or IM and other nonoral routes exert a pharmacological effect more slowly than IV drugs, but usually faster than oral drugs. We will focus on oral drug absorption, where most absorption drug interactions occur.
The cell membrane acts as a gate keeper for selective entrance and exit of nutrients, waste, drugs, and other substances foreign to the cell. Cell membranes are made up of phospholipid molecules: each molecule contains a phosphate (a molecule of the elements oxygen and phosphorus) end and a fatty acid (a string of carbons and hydrogens) end. Phospholipids form a bilayer so that their hydrophobic (from Greek words meaning “afraid of water”) tails are projecting to the interior of the two layers and their hydrophilic (from Greek words meaning “water loving”) heads are projecting outward. This organization of phospholipids allows the cell membranes to selectively control the entrance and exit of molecules.
Substances that are lipid soluble (hydrophobic) can move from outside the cell through the cell membrane by a process called diffusion movement from high concentration to lower concentration into the inside of the cell . Most oral drugs are designed to be lipid soluble and are absorbed by passive diffusion so they easily pass through the membrane. Other substances diffuse through the cell
membrane, but require help getting into the cell. Larger molecules or non-lipid soluble (hydrophilic) substances enter the cell via carrier proteins in a process called facilitated diffusion. The sugar glucose enters cells by facilitated diffusion. Less commonly, substances enter the cell via active transport, a process that requires energy and may involve movement from a lower concentration to a higherconcentration. For example, vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) is absorbed partially by active transport. In addition to the role these processes play in drug absorption, passive and facilitated diffusion and active transport also play a role in drug excretion. In order to be absorbed, a tablet or capsule must disintegrate and dissolve in the stomach. This presents a dilemma for the chemist designing a drug formulation: water solubility is best for the dissolution of the drug in the stomach, but lipid solubility is best for absorption. Thus, drugs
are usually weak acids or weak bases, designed to dissolve and thus promote absorption. Many drugs are formulated as salts (e.g., morphine sulfate, potassium penicillin)to improve water solubility without negatively affecting absorption or changing other characteristics of the drug.The dissolved drug in the gastrointestinal tract exists in two forms, the water soluble ionized (having a positively
or negatively charged molecule) and lipid soluble nonionized form. The proportion of each form is dependent
on pH, the acidity or alkalinity of the environment (most
acidic = pH 1, neutral = pH 7, most alkaline [basic] = pH .The stomach is very acidic with a pH of 1-2; the intestine is less acidic with a pH of 6 in the duodenum, where
the stomach connects to the small intestine. The pH increases to become more alkaline, about 7.4 farther along in the small intestine.
In the acidic stomach, weak acids are more non-ionized, and therefore lipid soluble and readily absorbed. Weak bases are more ionized in the acidic stomach, limiting absorption. In the alkaline small intestine, drugs that are weak bases become more non-ionized, and therefore more lipid soluble

and readily absorbed. For example, aspirin, a weak acid, is more nonionized (lipid soluble) in the stomach and is par-
tially absorbed there; caffeine, a weak base, is ionized (water soluble) in the stomach and thus not well absorbed. In the more alkaline small intestine, caffeine becomes a more non-
ionized, lipid soluble molecule, so it is absorbed better in the
intestine than in the stomach. Aspirin is a weak acid and is more readily absorbed in the stomach. A good tip to remember is “like absorbs like,” as an acidic stomach more read-
ily absorbs weak acids and a basic (alkaline) intestine more readily absorbs weak bases. Most drug absorption takes place in the small intestine. Absorption in the stomach is hindered
by the mucous layer that coats the surface of the stomach to protect it from the acid other stomach cells secrete. Also, the surface area of the stomach is relatively small compared with
the small intestine, whose surface area would be the size of a
tennis court if stretched out. DDIs involving absorption can occur by several mechanisms. Some drugs require an acidic or basic environment for absorption. Drugs that increase the pH of the stomach (i.e., make it less acidic) can change the absorption of drugs that are best absorbed in an acidic environment. For example, absorption of the antifungal drug, itraconazole, is decreased when taken with an antacid (e.g. Maalox, Mylanta), which increases the pH of the stomach. Enteric coated aspirin has a coating that is designed to dissolve at a higher pH (more alkaline) so that it will not dissolve in the stomach and cause problems for patients with ulcer
disease. Giving enteric aspirin with a drug that increases the pH of the stomach, such as ranitidine (Zantac),can cause the enteric coating to dissolve in the stomach instead of the intestine. The auxiliary label, “take on an empty stomach,” usually means the drug is better absorbed in a more acidic environment.
Another mechanism of DDI involves reduced absorption through binding and chelation (formation of an insoluble complex) mechanisms. For example, the combination of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (Cipro) and iron or calcium supplements (or the calcium in milk, yogurt, ice cream, etc.) results in lower ciprofloxacin absorption. Bile acid sequestrants suchas cholestyramine (Questran) and colestipol (Colestid) are designed to bind with bile acids, which reduces the production of cholesterol. In addition to bile acids, these drugs bind many other drugs such as the diuretic, furosemide (Lasix). Cell transporters such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) may also contribute to absorption DDI . P-gp acts as sort of a “cellular vacuum cleaner” and pumps foreign substances out of the cell. Cyclosporine is used to suppress the immune system to prevent the body from rejecting
transplanted organs. Cyclosporine is transported across
cell membranes by P-gp. Some drugs and herbs such as St. John’s wort increase the activity of P-gp causing cyclosporine that has been absorbed into intestinal cells to be pumped back out into the intestinal lumen (the inside of the “pipe”) and excreted. Episodes of organ rejection have
occurred when cyclosporine and St. John’s wort are taken
together. Drugs that inhibit the activity of P-gp such as the antirejection drug sirolimus (Rapamune) or the antibiotic erythromycin can cause higher amounts of cyclosporine to remain in the body, resulting in kidney damage. A therapeutic use of adsorption DDI is the use of charcoal for drug poisoning. Charcoal adsorbs some drugs to its surface so that the drug cannot be absorbed. Accidental or suicidal overdoses of the antidepressant drug amitriptyline (Elavil) are sometimes treated with charcoal to decrease the amount of amitriptyline that is absorbed. The amitriptyline is adsorbed to the charcoal and stays in the intestine, rather than being absorbed into the bloodstream where it can cause irregular heartbeat and other problems. Don’t confuse the terms aBsorb and aDsorb. An example
of aBsorption is the action of a sponge soaking up water, or

a drug passing through a cell membrane. An example of aDsorption is the action of a cigarette filter trapping tars and other substances on its surface, or a drug being adsorbed to the surface of charcoal. Drugs may affect the rate of absorption by altering the movement of the gastrointestinal tract. For example, narcotics slow the motility(movement) of substances through the intestine. Theoretically, greater absorption might occur
because the intestine has a longer period of time in which to absorb the narcotic or other drugs given concurrently.
On the other hand, laxatives could increase the movement of drugs through the intestinal tract, and theoretically reduce absorption. Usually, given the huge surface area of the intestine available for absorption, changes in the motility of the intestinal tract do not affect drug absorption to a clinically noticeable degree. Drug absorption may be changed by a process called enterohepatic circulation, circulation between the liver and intestine. Some drugs that enter the liver are secreted into bile, which the liver produces. Bile plus drug are secreted into the small intestine. Drugs (and/or metabolites) are absorbed again in the intestine and circulated back to the liver. Some fraction of what is absorbed will be secreted into the bile again, while the rest will enter the systemic circulation (bloodstream). Enterohepatic circulation is the reason for warnings about the concomitant use of oral contraceptives and antibiotics . The estrogen in oral contraceptives is transformed to an inactive metabolite in the liver and secreted into bile. Beneficial bacteria that live in the intestine restore estrogen to its
active form, and active estrogen is reabsorbed. Antibiotics can kill the bacteria in the intestine; instead of being reactivated, the inactive estrogen stays in the intestine to be excreted. As a result, estrogen levels could decrease, causing an unplanned pregnancy. The clinical importance of this interaction is debatable and usually is significant only when other factors such as genetic differences or concurrent metabolic interactions are involved.
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة :
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

💥بعض الأدوية المستعملة في معالجة أمراض الجھاز التنفسي


⭕Bronchodilators and Anti-asthma Drugs

*اعطاء ھذه الأدوية بواسطة البخاخ the inhaled route تطرح المادة العلاجية مباشرة على المكان المطلوب وتقلل من
توزيعھا على اجھزة الجسم الاخرى وتقلل التاثيرات الجانبية لھا .


* الأشكال الصيدلانية المتوفرة من ھذه الأدوية المستعملة بطريقة الاستنشاق ھي طريقتين ھما inhaler, nebulizer, and turbohaler


* أدوية Selective beta2 agonists
مثل علاج salbutamol or terbutaline حيث تكون مدة فعل ھذه الأدوية جدا سريعة وقصيرة ولھذا تعتبر الخط العلاجي الأول
لمعالجة حالات ونوبات الربو الحادة وغيرھا من حالة انسداد مجرى الھواء التنفسي .

* أدوية مجموعة Selective beta2 agonist على شكل استنشاق تعطى عند الحاجة وليس بصورة منتظمة .


* اما أدويه Long-acting beta2 agonists مثل Formoterol and salmeterol فھي تعطى للوقاية من الربو المزمن ومرض
pulmonary disease (COPD)
ومرض chronic obstructive pulmonary obstructive (COPD) بصورة منتظمة.

* أدوية Inhaled corticosteroid مثال Beclomethasone Dipropionate تستعمل بصورة منتظمة للوقاية من
نوبات مرض الربو وايضا فعال في حالات الربو الحادة .

* ادوية Inhaled corticosteroid ممكن ان تسبب oral candidiasis وھي عبارة عن عدوى فطرية تصيب الفم وھذا التاثير الجانبي لھذه الأدوية ممكن التخلص منها بالغرغرة بالماء بعد استعمال الجرعة من ھذه العلاجات .

* ھناك بعض المنتجات الصيدلانية تحتوي على علاجين من مجموعتين مختلفتين من الأدوية مثل inhaled
corticosteroid and long acting beta2 agonist
مثال على هذه الأدوية
. Symbicort ® turbohalte
(budesonide with formoterol) .

* أدوية Antimuscarinic bronchodilators مثل علاج ipratropium تستعمل بواسطة الاستنشاق في معالجة الربو ومرض
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

* علاج Tiotropium يمتلك تاثير اطول من علاج ipratropium .

*علاج Theophylline والمواد على شكل aminophylline موسع للقصبات الھوائية ويستعمل لعلاج مرض الربو و
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease .

*علاج Theophylline يعطى بواسطة injection على شكل as aminophylline حيث يجب ان تعطى بشكل
بطيء جدا على الاقل خلال عشرين دقيقة و يجب الانتباه إلى ضرورة قياس مستويات بوتاسيوم الدم لدى مرضى الربو الشديد الذين
يتلقون جرعات عالية من الكزانتينات بسبب خطر حدوث نقص في بوتاسيوم الدم .

*علاجaminophylline يوجد على شكل اقراص بطيئة التحرر تعطى مرتين يوميا وھي مفضله على الشكل الذي
يتحرر بسرعة وتعطى اربع مرات يوميا
يعطى الثيوفيلين بالطريق الحقني بشكل أمينوفيلين وهو مزيج من الثيوفيلين مع الايثيلين داي أمين، ً ويتميز بأنه أكثر انحلال بـ٢٠ مرة من الثيوفيلين بمفرده، ويعطى بالحقن الوريدي البطيء (خلال
20دقيقة على الاقل) ً ً ، ولا يستخدم حقنا عضليا لانه جدا مؤلم .

ملاحظة مھمة :: تكون مستحضرات الثيوفيلين ذات التحرر المعدل قادرة على تأمين تراكمي بلا سمية كافية لمدة تصل حتى
12ساعة، وتفيد عند إعطائھا بجرعة ليلية مفردة في ضبط الربو الليلي والازيز الصباحي المبكر، بالمقابل فقد تراجع استعمال
مستحضرات الثيوفيلين ذات التحرر السريع بسبب ارتفاع حوادث الاثار الجانبية المترافقة مع الامتصاص السريع للدواء .

*ادوية مجموعة Leukotriene receptor antagonists مثل علاجي montelukast and)
(zafirlukast
تستعمل للوقاية من مرض ونوبات مرض الربو .

*يوجد علاج montelukast على شكل اقراص Chewable tablet حيث تكون بجرعة صغيرة وتستعمل للاطفال
فقط .

* الأدوية المضادة للھستامين Antihistamines تستعمل في علاج nasal allergies حيث الرشح والسيلان
الانفي والعطاس وعادة ما تدمج مع ادوية اخرى لمعالجة السعال وامراض البرد مثل الأنفلونزا .وتستعمل ايضا في علاج
urticarial rashes, pruritus, and insect bites and stings .

* الأدوية المضادة للھستامين تقسم الى قسمين :
1- الأدوية المضادة للھستامين التي تسبب النعاس مثل
chlorphenamine(chlorpheniarmine) maleate
clemastine, cyproheptadine, ketotifen, diphenhydramine, and dimethindene maleate
والتي لها ايضا antimuscarinic effects وايضا Drowsiness .

2- الأدوية المضادة للھستامين التي لا تسبب النعاس مثل ,cetirizine, levocetirizine , loratadine , desloratadine)
(fexofenadine
حيث تسبب ھذه الأدوية drowsiness بصورة قليلة او معدومة .

* لان الأدوية المضادة الھستامين التي تسبب النعاس لها تاثير antimuscarinic actions والذي يسبب احتباس
للبول فان ھذه الأدوية يجب ان تستعمل بحذر للمرضى اللذين يعانون ايضا prostatic hyperplasia
بينما ھذا التاثير قليل او
معدوم في الأدوية المضادة

للهستامين التي لاتسبب النعاس .

* علاج Cyproheptadine يستعمل بصورة شائعة وكثيرة كعلاج فاتح للشھية ولكنه وعند استعماله بصورة مطولة
لا يحدث زيادة في الوزن لذلك لايفضل استعماله بصورة طويلة لغرض زيادة الوزن .

* علاج Diphenhydramine يوخذ قبل
الذھاب الى النوم لأنه يسبب النعاس. وايضاتستخدم مضادات الھيستامين المھدئة مثل الديفينھدرامين diphenhydramine كمركبات كابتة للسعال في
العديد من مستحضرات السعال المركبة ، وقد يعود تأثيرھا إلى دورھا المھدئ، وقد تسبب النعاس

* الأدوية المستعملة في علاج السعال Cough preparations وھي على عدة اقسام منھا تعمل كمثبط للسعال
تستعمل للسعال الجاف مثلCodeine, and dextromethorphan تؤثر ھذه الأدوية عن طريق إنقاص حساسية مركز السعال،
وتستخدم لتخفيف الاعراض المزعجة التي تسبب اضطراب النوم أو عدم الارتياح أثناء العمل. يجب تجنب استعمال ھذه المركبات في
الحالات الرئوية الانسدادية المزمنة لانھا قد تسبب احتباس القشع مما يسيء إلى حالة المرضى المصابين بالتھاب القصبات المزمن
وتوسع القصبات .

تنويه : معظم cough supressent ھي من المشتقات الافيونية، وھي تسبب الامساك ويخشى من إساءة استخدامھا، ويعد الكودئين codeine والديكستروميتورفان dextrometorphane أكثرھا استخداماً. الديكستروميتورفان له فعالية مثبطة للسعال
مشابھة لفعالية الكودئين، لكنه لا يسبب الامساك أو الادمان .

تنبيه الصيدلاني : ينصح عادة بعدم استخدام المستحضرات الكابتة للسعال الحاوية على الكودئين أو المسكنات الافيونية المشابھة لدى
الاطفال، ويوصى بتجنب استخدامھا نھائيا للاطفال دون السنة.

* ومن الأدوية التي تستعمل في علاج السعال ھي الأدوية الطاردة للبلغم- Expectorants
( e.g. Glyceryl
guaiacolate (also called Guaifenesin))
وايضا الأدوية الحاله للمخاط Mucolytics مثل . Bromohexine التي
تستعمل في علاج السعال غير الجاف wet cough.حيث ان الطارد للبلغم expectorants: تزيد حجم المفرزات القصبية، لكنھا تنقص لزوجتھا وتسھل التخلص منھا بينما المطريات demulcents: مستحضرات ملطفة تسكن السعال الجاف المخرش بفضل
محتواھا من الغليسرول أو الشراب البسيط.
اما المخاط mucolytics: توصف حالات المخاط أحيانا لتسھيل التقشع من خلال
إنقاص لزوجة المفرزات القصبية بتحطيم البنية المتماسكة ثم الطرد يفيد الاستخدام المنتظم لحالات المخاط الفموية بصورة خاصة لدى مرضى الداء الرئوي الانسدادي المزمن الذين يعانون من اشتدادات مزعجة .

* عادة الادوية المضادة للسعال تكون مدمجة مع ادوية من مجموعات اخرى مثل مضادات الھستامين وطارد للبلغم
ومزيلات الاحتقان .

* قد يستعمل Lozenges في علاج السعال وخاصة في النساء الحوامل .

* الادوية المزيلة للاحتقان nasal decongestants التي تستعمل بصورة فموية عادة تكون من مجموعتين
مثل احد الادوية sympathomimetics
مثل pseudoephedrine and phenylphrine
لتقليل nasal congestion مع
ادوية مضادة للھستامين مثل triprolidine لنقلل rhinorrhoea and sneezing وھذه الادوية يجب ان تعطى بحذر لمرضى
. hypertension, hyperthyroidism, and ischaemic heart diseases.


ملاحظة : يجب الأخذ في الاعتبار تقييم الادوية و اي تداخلات حركية او ديناميكية لهذه الأدوية مع أدوية أخرى يستخدمها المرضى .


مجال الإدارة العلاجية
صيدلانية صفاء بادي
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
مدير البرنامج
ا. د/ محمود مهيوب البريهي
أستاذ مشارك صيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة جامعة صنعاء

رابط مجموعة الإدارة العلاجية بالتليجرام :
https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixDfeAtUH2wo-M1ztw
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹ Ideal Drug:
▶ Has a desirable pharmacological action
▶ Has no side effects
▶ Reaches its intended location in the right concentration at the right time
▶ Remains at the site of action for the necessary period of time
▶ Is rapidly and completely removed from the body when no longer needed.
برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

السلام عليكم ورحمة الله وبركاته

ص/رانيا عبدالرؤوف القباطي

#المحاضرة_السابعة

🍊🍊🍊🍊🍊🍊🍊
#Food_Drug_interactions

✅ #البرتقال:
سنتحدث اليوم عن فاكهة #البرتقال وهل لها تأثير على الادوية؟! 🤔

⭕️ يأتي الشتاء وموسم البرتقال، تكثر امراض البرد والزكام ودائما ينصح بالحمضيات فهل يؤثر البرتقال على الادوية ‼️



#Sweet_Orange

يُعرف علمياً بـ #Citrus_sinensis

◀️ وتستخدم القشرة الخارجية وعصير الثمار للأغراض العلاجية
منها: ارتفاع ضغط الدم وكذلك ارتفاع الكوليسترول

🔶 تحتوي ثمار البرتقال على كميات كبيرة من #فيتامين_ج
#Vitamine_C
والذي يُعرف بفعاليته المضادة للأكسدة.

🔶 وايضا تحتوي ثمار البرتقال على كميات كبيرة من #عنصر_البوتاسيوم والذي يساعد في خفض ضغط الدم عن طريق طرد الصوديوم من الكلى

✨The more potassium you eat, the more sodium you lose through urine. ✨

🔶وتستخدم ثمار البرتقال في منع تكون #حصوات_الكلى وذلك بسبب انها تحتوي على كميات كبيرة من #السترات_Citrate
والتي بدورها ترتبط بالكالسيوم وبالتالي تمنع تكون الحصوات.


⭕️ وهناك بعض #التداخلات_الدوائية بين بعض الادوية والبرتقال:
حيث ان عصير البرتقال يقلل من امتصاص الادوية التالية:

1⃣ #Celiprolol
➡️ A Beta blocker, used in the treatment of high blood pressure. 

2⃣ #Ivermectin
➡️ A broad-spectrum antiparasitic agent, against parasitic worms and other multicellular parasites.

3⃣ #Pravastatin
➡️ Antihyperlipidemic agent used to lower blood Cholesterol.

4⃣ #Quinolone_antibiotics
➡️ Broad spectrum bactericides used to treat bacterial infections.

5⃣ #Fexofenadine
➡️ An antihistamine drug used in the treatment of allergy symptoms, such as hay fever and urticaria.


لذلك يجب تنبيه المريض الذي يستخدم هذه الادوية بتجنب الافراط من تناول #البرتقال 🍊

ودمتم بخير ...
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ص/ رانيا عبدالرؤوف القباطي
#برنامج_تطوير_مهنةالصيدلة
#مجال_الغذاء_والدواء

https://news.1rj.ru/str/joinchat/B56pixBmPbddYibsYI9miQ

#مدير_البرنامج
#البروف محمودالبريهي
#أستاذ مشارك الصيدلانيات
كلية الصيدلة جامعة صنعاء

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram

⏹How Do Drugs Work:

The site of action of a drug is the location in the body where the drug performs its desired function. For example, a drug may act in the brain, heart, eye, or kidney.
Within the organ, the drug may act on a particular component of the organ, such as a certain type of cell. Drug action may be extracellular, where the drug performs its function outside the cell, or intracellular, in which case the drug has to enter the cell to work. Alternatively, the action may be on the cell surface, at the cell membrane. Drugs work by interacting with target molecules found at the site of action, and altering their activity in a way that is beneficial to health. Drug targets are usually biomolecules such as proteins, protein complexes, or nucleic acids that play a role
in a particular disease process. In most cases, the drug must temporarily attach (bind) to the target to exert its action.The drug target binding can either stimulate the target or block the normal activity of the target, resulting in a physiological effect. A common type of drug target is a receptor, generally a protein on the cell membrane, that can bind with a specific molecule (such as an endogenous compound or a drug) to alter the cell’s behavior. The interactions between a drug and its receptor and succeeding events that lead to pharmacological
action of the drug are broadly considered the field of pharmacodynamics.
A simple analogy often used to describe drug target interactions is that of a lock and key the target is a lock on a door that only a certain drug (the key) can bind to and open. Ideally, the key should not fit any other lock, and different keys should not open this lock. Some keys may fit in the lock, but not perfectly. Consequently,
these imperfect keys cannot open the door. Yet, by fitting into the lock, imperfect keys prevent the original key from fitting into the lock; they therefore block
the door from opening.
Using this analogy, the target is a molecular lock that contains a “keyhole” with a very specific and consistent size and shape. This molecular keyhole is termed the active site of the target and can interact with only molecular keys of a complementary size, shape of the drug molecule must fit exactly into the structure of the target to activate it. Therefore, just like locks and their keys,the interactions between drugs and their targets are highly specific.
In reality, most targets are not as rigid as locks and the active site can somewhat change its shape and size depending on the environment. Most drugs, also, are not as specific as a key. Thus target drug interactions are much more complex than the simple lock-and-key analogy leads us
to believe. Few drugs interact exclusively with their intended target. Many drugs bind to more than one type of target and influence physiological or biochemical processes that were not targeted. This leads to undesirable side effects of drugs,
or toxicity. How Are Drugs Designed?
Drug design is the process of finding new drugs based on the understanding of the disease and the structure and function of a
biological target molecule involved in the disease. Once these are known, chemical compounds are synthesized with structures that allow them to bind to and alter the behavior of the target. The structures of these compounds are progressively refined, often using computer-modeling, to fit even better with the target. In addition to being able to bind to the target, a
drug must be able to pass through barriers our body puts in its path. It must be able to adequately withstand the body’s protective mechanisms that reject or decompose it. Ultimately, the body should be able to
eliminate and remove the drug. This systematic approach to new drug discovery is called rational drug design.
In the past, most drugs were discovered through a search of natural sources such as plants and microorganisms, or by the synthesis of an extensive number of compounds of varying structures. These synthetic or natural compounds were then tested for various kinds of biological activi

ties in the laboratory. This type of trial-and-error approach, called random screening, resulted in the discovery and development of many important drugs.
It still has a place in drug discovery and is often used by pharmaceutical companies to identify lead compounds. These
lead compounds are then synthetically modified to give new compounds with improved properties. Most drugs are small organic molecules produced through chemical synthesis, but biopharmaceutical drugs (also known as biologics) produced through biological processes are becoming increasingly more common.

برنامج تطوير مهنة الصيدلة
https://news.1rj.ru/str/ppdprogram